PROLEGOMENA.

I. Berkeley's Life and Writings.

1: EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION.-GEORGE BERKELEY, born at Kilcrin or Dysert, in the County of Kilkenny, Ireland, March 12, 1684-1685,* was a descendant of the noble English house of Berkeley. The commonly accepted statement is that more than twenty years before his birth his great-grandfather, the first Lord Berkeley of Stratton, who had been ennobled by Charles II., came to Ireland as Lord Lieutenant, and settled there, as it would seem, with his son, the grandfather of Berkeley. In fact, the early years and the ancestry of Berkeley are shrouded in mystery. He comes forth the most subtle and accomplished philosopher of his time, almost from darkness.'

George Berkeley, at the age of fifteen, entered Trinity College, Dublin, March 21, 1700, with which he was connected until 1713. He obtained a fellowship in 1707. Peter Browne, subsequently Bishop of Cork, was the Provost of Trinity. Locke's 'Essay concerning Human Understanding,' and the writings of Bacon, Descartes, Malebranche, and Newton, were diligently studied at that time.

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§ 2: EARLY WORKS.-In 1707 appeared a Latin Dissertation by Berkeley: 'Arithmetica absque Algebra aut Euclide demonstrata;' the Essay towards a New Theory of Vision' followed, 1709; the Principles of Human' Knowledge,' 1710; Berkeley's next work was the 'Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous,' published 1713.

This sketch embraces the entire matter of Ueberweg's, in his edition of the Principles, but corrected and very much enlarged from other sources, especially from Prof. Fraser's 'Life and Letters of Berkeley. Works, vol. iv.

'In the two writings last named,' says Ueberweg, 'he presents his philosophical doctrine, complete in each of them. The manner of presentation, however, is diverse. In the "Principles" we have a systematic development; in the " Dialogues" there is a personal discussion between Philonous, an adherent of the doctrine of Berkeley, and Hylas, an opponent of it. Hylas does not oppose a fixed, thoroughly developed view to that of Berkeley, but, proceeding from the common confusion in regard to the problem, gradually advances to a more scientific apprehension of the subject, but is driven from one position to another by his antagonist, until at last he acknowledges himself beaten, and only asks a verbal concession to the received mode of speaking, which Philonous, without favouring it, concedes. As the concession, however, involves a twofold use of the word "matter," to wit, in the phenomenal and in the transcendental sense, it is open to some objection. In consequence of the life of their mode of delineation, the "Dialogues" have a peculiar charm; but the "Principles" present the doctrine in its most original and purely scientific shape.' Fraser calls the Dialogues 'the gem of British metaphysical literature.'

§3: TRAVELS.-The publication of the 'Dialogues' followed upon Berkeley's visit to London, 1713. He formed an intimate friendship with Swift, Pope, and other writers of the highest distinction. Swift introduced Berkeley to his kinsman the Earl of Berkeley. Atterbury, having heard much of Berkeley, wished to see him, and was introduced to him by the Earl. When Berkeley left the room the Earl said to the Bishop, 'Does my cousin answer your lordship's expectations?' Atterbury, lifting up his hands in astonishment, replied, 'So much understanding, so much knowledge, so much innocence, and such humility, I did not think had been the portion of any but angels, till I saw this gentleman.'

It was on a recommendation by Swift to the Earl of Peterborough that Berkeley, as the chaplain and secretary of that nobleman, accompanied him on his journey as ambassador through France to Italy (Nov., 1713, to August, 1714). Soon after his return to London he had a severe attack of sickness. After his recovery, his friend Doctor Arbuthnot wrote playfully to Swift:

'Poor philosopher Berkeley has now the idea of health, which was very hard to produce in him; for he had an idea of a strange fever upon him, so strong that it was very hard to destroy it by introducing a contrary one.' Soon after Berkeley visited France and Italy a second time. He went as the companion and tutor of the only son of the Bishop of Clogher.

In Paris-according to the common story-Berkeley had a disputation with Malebranche, the distinguished metaphysician, most frequently spoken of in our day in connection with his doctrine that we behold all things in God.

§4: MALEBRANCHE.-'The doctrine of Malebranche,' says Ueberweg, 'that there are indeed material things which exist without the mind, but that these things have no power of operating upon the mind, but are represented in the divine mind, and that we have intuition of this representation, can easily lead to a view which goes yet further, and denies that material things exist at all; for as they can effect nothing, to suppose that they exist is to suppose that God has created them wholly without an object.' Of this obvious point Berkeley avails himself with much force.

§5: ARTHUR COLLIER, an Oxford scholar (1680–1732), had been led into the train of thought suggested by Malebranche. This was mainly due to the influence of the work of John Norris: 'Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World,' 2 vols., 1701-4.

Collier had reached views in general unison with Berkeley's as early as 1703. These he had expressed privately, and had defended in an unpublished work, 'On the Dependent Existence of the Visible World,' which is dated 1708. Three years after Berkeley's 'Principles,' Collier appeared as an author in his 'Clavis Universalis, or a New Inquiry after Truth, being a Demonstration of the Non-existence and Impossibility of an External World.' London, 1713.

A full account of Collier's work, with citations from it, will be found in Appendix B.

It is certain that Berkeley was not influenced by Collier; and there is no reason to believe that Collier was influenced by Berkeley. So far as the speculation of the two writers agrees, 'the agreement may be referred to the common philosophical point of view at the time. The scientific world was preparing

for that reconstruction of its conception of what sensible things and externality mean, which has since clarified and simplified physical research. Collier in his own way was not wanting in force; but he expressed his acute thoughts in awkward English, with the pedantry of a schoolman, and wanted the sentiment and imagination and constant recognition of the relation of speculation to human action, which in the course of time made the contemporary writings of Berkeley an influence that has left its mark upon all later thought. The theory of sense-symbolism, which connected Berkeley with the Baconian movement, and also with religion, is wanting in Collier, whose arid reasonings are divorced from the living interests of men. The starting-point of Berkeley was more in the current philosophy of Locke; Collier produced the meditative reasonings of a recluse student of Malebranche and the schoolmen." The universal sense-symbolism of Berkeley, his broad recognition of the distinction between physical or symbolical and efficient or proper causation, and his large philosophical insight, are all wanting in the narrow but acute reasonings of Collier. Berkeley's philosophy, owing to its own comprehensiveness, not less than to the humanity of his sympathies and the beauty of his style, is now recognized as a striking expression or solution of problems of modern thought, while Collier is condemned to the obscurity of a mere reasoner of the schools.'2

§ 6: RETURNS TO ENGLAND-SAILS TO AMERICA.-Berkeley remained in Italy until, probably, 1720. He shows in his Letters and Journal an intense interest in nature, art, and popular

manners.

After his return to England, he spent most of the time in London, from 1721 to 1728. His mind was occupied at this time with a plan for establishing a college in the Bermuda Islands. It was to be modelled in general after Trinity College, Dublin, and its grand aim was to be the extension of Christianity and civilization in America. The king was greatly interested in the 'pious work.' Sir Robert Walpole promised twenty thousand pounds for the endowment of the college.

Fraser: Life and Letters, 62, 63.

2 Fraser Preface to Dialogues. Works, i. 254.