inftant retaliation; that the mutual license which fuch attempts must introduce, would fill both fides with the mifery of continual dread and fufpicion, without adding to the ftrength or fuccefs of either; that when the example came to be more generally imitated, which it foon would be, after the fentiment that condemns it had been once broken in upon, it would greatly aggravate the horrors and calamities of war, yet procure no fuperiority to any of the nations engaged in it when we view these effects, we join in the public reprobation of fuch fatal expedients, as of the admiffion amongst mankind of new and enormous evils without neceffity or advantage. The law of nature, we fee at length, forbids these innovations as fo many tranfgreffions of a beneficial general rule, actually fubfifting.

The license of war then acknowledges two limitations: it authorizes no hoftilities which have not an apparent tendency to effectuate the object of the war; it refpects those positive laws which the custom of nations hath fanctified, and which, whilft they are mutually conformed to, mitigate the calamities of war without weakening its operations, or diminishing the power or fafety of belligerent ftates.

Long and various experience feems to have convinced the nations of Europe that nothing but a ftanding army can oppofe a standing army, where the numbers on each fide bear any moderate proportion to one another. The first ftanding army that appeared in Europe after the fall of the Roman legion, was that which was erected in France by Charles VII. about the middle of the fifteenth century. And that the inftitution hath fince become general, can only be attributed to the fuperiority and success which are every where observed to attend it. The truth is, the clofenefs, regularity, and quicknefs of their movements; the unreferved, instantaneous, and almoft mechanical obedience to orders; the sense of perfonal honour, and the familiarity with danger, which belong to a difciplined, veteran, and embodied foldiery, give fuch firmnefs and intrepidity to their approach, fuch weight and execution to their attack, as are not to be withftood by loose ranks of occafional and newly levied troops, who are liable by their inexperience to disorder and confufion, and in whom fear is conftantly augmented by novelty and furprife. It is poffible that a militia, with a great excefs of numbers, and a ready fupply of recruits, may fuftain a

defenfive

defenfive or a flying war against regular troops: it is also true that any service, which keeps foldiers for a while together, and inures them by little and little to the habits of war and the dangers of action, transforms them in effect into a standing army: but upon this plan it may be necessary for almost a whole nation to go out to war to repel an invader; befide that, a people fo unprepared muft always have the feat, and with it the miseries of war, at home, being utterly incapable of carrying their operations into a foreign country.

From the acknowledged fuperiority of standing armies, it follows, not only that it is unfafe for a nation to disband its regular troops, whilst neighbouring kingdoms retain theirs, but alfo that regular troops provide for the public service at the leaft poffible expence. I fuppofe a certain quantity of military strength to be necessary, and I fay that a standing army cofts the community lefs than any other establishment which presents to an enemy the fame force. The conftant drudgery of low employments is not only incompatible with any great degree of perfection or expertnefs in the profeffion of a foldier, but the profeffion of a foldier almost always unfits men for the business of regular occupations. Of three inhabitants of a village,

a village, it is better that one should addict himfelf entirely to arms, and the other two stay conftantly at home to cultivate the ground, than' that all the three fhould mix the avocations of a camp with the business of husbandry. By the former arrangement the country gains one complete foldier, and two induftrious hufbandmen; from the latter it receives three raw militia-men, who are at the fame time three idle and profligate peafants. It should be confidered also, that the emergencies of war wait not for seasons. Where there is no standing army ready for immediate fervice, it may be neceffary to call the reaper from the fields in harvest, or the ploughman in feed-time; and the provision of a whole year may perish by the interruption of one month's labour. A ftanding army, therefore, is not only a more effectual, but a cheaper method of providing for the public fafety, than any other, because it adds more than any other to the common ftrength, and takes lefs from that, which composes the wealth of a nation, its flock of productive industry.

There is yet another diftinction between ftanding armies and militias, which deferves a more attentive confideration than any that has been mentioned. When the ftate relies for its

defence upon a militia, it is neceffary that arms be put into the hands of the people at large. The militia itself must be numerous, in proportion to the want or inferiority of its difcipline, and the imbecilities or defects of its conftitution. Moreover, as fuch a militia muft be fupplied by rotation, allotment, or fome mode of fucceffion, whereby they, who have ferved. a certain time, are replaced by fresh draughts from the country, a much greater number will be inftructed in the ufe of arms, and will have been occafionally embodied together, than are actually employed, or than are supposed to be wanted at the fame time. Now what effects upon the civil condition of the country may be looked for from this general diffufion of the military character, becomes an inquiry of great importance and delicacy. To me it appears doubtful, whether any government can be long fecure, where the people are acquainted with the use of arms, and accustomed to refort to them. Every faction will find itself at the head of an army. Every dif guft will excite commotion, and every commotion become a civil war. Nothing perhaps can govern a nation of armed citizens but that which governs an army-defpotifm. I do not mean that a regular government would become defpo