Co-ordinate Connectives *

Copulative. And, both... and, as well as † are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs.

Adversative. But and whereas are conjunctions proper. However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs.

Alternative. Neither, nor, or, either. . or, and neither ... nor are conjunctions proper. Else and other ise are conjunctive adverbs.

Subordinate Connectives

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunctive adverbs.

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES

Time. After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, and whilst are conjunctive adverbs.

Place. Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs.

Degree. As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs.

* Copulative conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought; Adversative conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning; Alternative conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.

†The as well as in, He, as well as I, went; and not that in, He is as well as I am.

Manner. As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb.

Real Cause. As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions proper.

Evidence. Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper. Purpose. In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are conjunctions proper.

Condition. Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper. Concession. Although, if (= even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES

If, lest, that, and whether* are conjunctions proper. What, which, and who are pronouns introducing questions; and how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions.

Direction. Study the lists above, and point out all the connectives in Lessons 80 and 81, telling which are relative pronouns, which are conjunctions proper, and which are conjunctive adverbs.

TO THE TEACHER. If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course.

* Etymologically, whether is restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more. The repetition of whether, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it. Whether or no is also allowed.

Direction. Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions af co-ordinate connectives.

LESSON 102*

COMPOSITION

CONNECTIVES

CONTINUED

Direction. Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses and by connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner.

COMPOSITION

LESSON 103*

CONNECTIVES

CONTINUED

Direction. Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses.

*See note on page 9 of preface.

LESSON 104*

CONNECTIVES

Analysis

Direction. Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connecives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences:

As may connect a clause expressing manner, time, degree, cause, or evidence.

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing.

5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.

If may connect a clause expressing condition, time, or concession, or it may introduce a noun clause.

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free.

7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.

8. Who knows if † one of the Pleiads is really missing? 9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing.

Lest may connect a clause expressing purpose, or it may introduce a noun clause.

*See note on page 9 of preface.

† Many grammarians say that if here is improperly used for whether. But this use of if is common with good authors in early and in modern English.

10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India.

11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation.

Since may connect a clause expressing time, cause, or evidence.

12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built.

14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted.

Direction. Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences:

That may connect a noun clause, an adjective clause, or a clause expressing degree, cause, or purpose.

1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other

men.

2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried.

3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the metal.

4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle.

*See note on page 9 of preface.