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Among them are found some tribes whose appearance and dialect indicate a foreign origin, such as the Kouyadas from Georgia; the Gounibs, which appear to be the remains of the Huns; and further off, between Terek and the mountains, Tartars, ⚫ whose settlement here dates from the establishment of the caliphate. Lastly, the Tshetshenzes, sometimes called Notchgoï, who are related to their neighbors, the Aoukhs, Itschkeines, and the Khists.

From the Plain of Kabarda to the Black Sea, the Caucasian Mountains are inhabited by the tribe of Tcherkes, and the distinct family of the Abadzas. North of these are the Nogais, of Tartar origin, and on the southern side the Abkhazes are contiguous to the maritime Djyghetes and Oubùiks. Between these two subdivisions, in narrow valleys along the center of the chain, are grouped four tribes, known by the common name of Ossetes. They have been the subjects of various discussions and hypotheses. Some have believed that they migrated from the North, others from the South. Modern travelers are of the opinion that they are a distinct race. At the South the Georgian family oceupy the mountains from the limits of the Lesghians and Abkhazes, to Turkey and the Mussulman provinces on the borders of the Caspian. Russian maps unite these provinces under the denomination of the Georgian and Tmerethenian governments. In this family there are six distinct tribes, formerly united under the Georgian crown. The Persians and Turks occupy all the south-east of Caucasia, from the mountains to the Caspian Sea, and the borders of Persia.

Lastly, at the extreme south, as far as Mount Ararat and the Araxes, is the Armenian family, the feeble remains of an ancient section of Alexander's empire. At the beginning of our era it was a Roman province, but was constantly exposed to the attacks of the Arsacides, and at a later date ravaged by the cruelty and avarice of the Turks and Persians, until united to Russia in 1828.

The whole of this heterogeneous mass comprehends but three millions of male population.

Christianity and Mohammedanism are the religions of the country-with the exception of a few idolatrous and fire-worshiping tribes; but all creeds are tolerated by the Russian government.

VOL. VI.-38

At

the beginning of the Christian era, the doctrines of Christ penetrated through Armenia into Circassia, and the Georgian Church was established under St. George, and governed by the Patriarchs of Antioch till the sixteenth century. Attacked, from the first, by the Persians, who sustained the doctrines of Zoroaster, and suffering still more under the dissensions which attended the decline of the Eastern empire and the rise of Islamism, the Christian Church of Caucasia still preserved its faith, and patiently awaited its deliverance. But the invasion of the Mogol Tartars shook its foundations. Still Christianity survived the shock. At present Caucasia numbers seven hundred thousand Georgian and Armenian Christians, not including the Russian colonies north and south of the mountains.

The remainder of the population is chiefly Mohammedan. Here, as elsewhere, Islamism was introduced by force of arms. In the thirteenth century the caliphs, at the head of a young and vigorous people, established their power on the ruins of the Eastern empire. The Arabs invaded Caucasia. The prophet Abou Musselim appeared in Daghestan, inflaming the popular mind with desires for a new religion suitable to the ardent temperament of the East. At a later date the efforts of the Kachnets in the south, and the success of the Russians in the north, restricted Islamism to the gorges of Daghestan and the shore of the Caspian, where there were no less than one million six hundred thousand Mussulmans, divided between the sects of Omer and of Ali.

The Turks on the Circassian side propagated Islamism among the neighboring nations of the Black Sea; but here fanaticism did not take as deep root as in Daghestan. According to the last treaties, the Turks abandoned this side; the commerce of slaves ceased, and religious fervor had so greatly diminished that only the prince and nobles preserved their faith, and that not with very exemplary strictness.

These Alpine populations, usually known under the general names of Circassians and Georgians, are divided, as we have seen, into different tribes, which, notwithstanding certain resemblances, present very varied traits of character, manners, institutions, language, and physical conformation.

Nevertheless, some general resemblance may be discovered among this chaos of institutions and races. All have the same love of independence; they will not long submit to the government of any single individual; a warlike spirit and skill in arms are common to them from the cradle; and likewise an unconquerable proclivity to rapine and murder.

They are incredibly abstinent. Boiled millet is the chief dish in their repasts; mutton is occasionally presented to an honored guest. When on the battle-field, they live on grain mixed with honey, and a quarter of a pound will constitute their food for the day. To great muscular strength, and wonderful power of endurance, they join consummate idleness, and a disdain for agriculture or manual labor, which they leave to their women, to slaves, and to prisoners. The wife is only a slave in her master's house. As long as she is young and strong, her life is spent in domestic and out-door labor; but when she shows signs of inability to do her accustomed tasks, she must give place to another. If she bear no children, or be sick, or even be unjustly suspected of faithlessness, her husband can send her away.

In general, the morals of these mountaineers are good; they are ignorant of the vices which prevail among the TransCaucasians. Drunkenness is rare among them. Respect for the aged, and the rites of hospitality and of friendship, are common. But these generous sentiments are observed only toward those of the same tribe and religion. A stranger or Christian would inevitably be robbed or killed were it not for the protecting koumak, who is a messenger from the particular tribe in whose region he is traveling, and with whom he will be honorably treated. Another striking characteristic of these mountaineers, is their immovable stoicism, their contempt of death. Three or four marauders will often withstand a superior force till they find it useless to resist, and will then kill themselves rather than surrender. Their love of vengeance is equally strong. An injury to be returned, or a quarrel with a family, is handed down, like a heritage, from father to child. But if the aggressor be rich, a reconciliation can be effected: even for the murder of a parent they will accept a ransom of silver or cattle. These affairs are decided by the adat, which is the common law, found

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ed upon traditions mostly anterior to the adoptions of Islamism. The adat varies in different tribes; while the chariat, or civil law, derived from the Koran, is unchangeable to all Mussulmans. Sometimes their quarrels are submitted to the arbitration of the priest, who secures to himself usually the chief advantage, leaving the parties interested to get what they may. These mollahs, or effendis, are the only savants in the country, as their compatriots have no written language.

The Abreks is a remarkable institution, found in all parts of Caucasia. The consequences of crime, the oppression of a chief, or sometimes weariness of incessant scenes of war, induce individuals to leave their tribe, and sever every domestic and social tie. They unite in bands of from ten to fifteen men, choose an isolated retreat, and devote themselves to plunder and the extermination of Christians; but, in attacking the Russian villages, they do not fail to impose ransoms upon such of their own countrymen as may fall into their hands. Sometimes their associations are more extensive: bringing their families, they found villages in which the only means of subsistence is pillage, and the only legislation the most severe and arbitrary laws. They bear the name of Abreks, and in some places are called Hadjiretes.

The villages of Achili and Tchirkat, in Daghestan, are composed of Abreks from the neighboring tribes. Among the Adighes, the sources of the Laba and the Ouroup are the refuges of these savage bandits.

The numberless divisions of the Caucasian tribes, and the hostility existing between them, prevent any extensive social order, or any real sentiments of patriotism. Occasionally they will unite for the time being under a leader, to advance some common interest, repulse an aggression, or carry on a war. But these temporary alliances are soon destroyed by intrigue, defiance, and personal strifes. This is not only the case with a whole tribe, but with nearly every little district and village. The chiefs are sooner or later assassinated by their confederates, and every year exhibits numerous and horrible acts of treachery.

Although these general characteristics belong more or less to all the inhabitants of the Caucasian range, there are portions

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