when the possessive case precedes the participle. If he were right in this, there would be an important exception to Rule 6th above. But so singularly absurd is his doctrine about "abridged predicates," that in general the abridging shows an increase of syllables, and often a conversion of good English into bad. For example: It [the predicate] remains unchanged in the nominative, when, with the participle of the copula, it becomes a verbal noun, limited by the possessive case of the subject; as, 'That he was a foreigner prevented his election,'=' His being a foreigner prevented his election.'"-Greene's Analysis, p. 169. Here the number of syllables is unaltered; but foreigner is very improperly called "a verbal noun," and an example which only lacks a comma, is changed to what Wells rightly calls an "anomalous expression," and one wherein that author supposes foreigner and his to be necessarily in the same case. But Greene varies this example into other "abridged forms," thus: "I knew that he was a foreigner,"="I knew his being, or of his being a foreigner." "The fact that he was a foreigner, of his being a foreigner, was undeniable." When he was first called a foreigner, on his being first called a foreigner, his anger was excited."-Ib., p. 171. All these changes enlarge, rather than abridge, the expression; and, at the same time, make it questionable English, to say the least of it.

OBS. 9.-In some examples, the adverb there precedes the participle, and we evidently have nothing by which to determine the case that follows; as, "These judges were twelve in number. Was this owing to there being twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations?"-Webster's Essays, p. 263. Say rather: "Was this because there were twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations?" "How many are injured by Adam's fall, that know nothing of there ever being such a man in the world!"-Barclay's Apology, p. 185. Say rather," who know not that there ever was such a man in the world!"

OBS. 10.—In some other examples, we find a possessive before the participle, and a doubtful case after it; as, “This our Saviour himself was pleased to make use of as the strongest argument of his being the promised Messiah.”—Addison's Evidences, p. 81. "But my chief affliction consisted in my being singled out from all the other boys, by a lad about fifteen years of age, as a proper object upon whom he might let loose the cruelty of his temper."-Cowper's Memoir, p. 13. * Τοῦ πατρὸς ὄντος] ὄνου εὐθὺς ὑπεμνήσθη. He had some sort of recollection of his father's being an ass."-Collectanea Græca Minora, Note, p. 7. This construction, though not uncommon, is anomalous in more respects than one. Whether or not it is worthy to form an exception to the rule of same cases, or even to that of possessives, the reader may judge from the observations made on it under the latter. I should rather devise some way to avoid it, if any can be found—and I believe there can; as, "This our Saviour himself was pleased to advance as the strongest proof that he was the promised Messiah."—" But my chief affliction consisted in this, that I was singled out," &c. The story of the mule is, "He seemed to recollect on a sudden that his father was an ass." This is the proper meaning of the Greek text above; but the construction is different, the Greek nouns being genitives in apposition.

OBS. 11.-A noun in the nominative case sometimes follows a finite verb, when the equivalent subject that stands before the verb, is not a noun or pronoun, but a phrase or a sentence which supplies the place of a nominative; as, "That the barons and freeholders derived their authority from kings, is wholly a mistake."-Webster's Essays, p. 277. "To speak of a slave as a member of civil society, may, by some, be regarded a solecism."-Stroud's Sketch, p. 65. Here mistake and solecism are as plainly nominatives, as if the preceding subjects had been declinable words. OBS. 12.-When a noun is put after an abstract infinitive that is not transitive, it appears necessarily to be in the objective case, though not governed by the verb; for if we supply any noun to which such infinitive may be supposed to refer, it must be introduced before the verb by the preposition for: as, "To be an Englishman in London, a Frenchman in Paris, a Spaniard in

*

1. In Latin, the accusative case is used after such a verb, because an other word in the same case is understood before it; as, “Facère que libet, ID est [hominem] esse regem."-SALLUST. "To do what he pleases, THAT is [for a man] to be a king." If Professor Bullions had understood Latin, or Greek, or English, as well as his commenders imagine, he might have discovered what construction of cases we have in the following instances: "It is an honour [for a man] to be the author of such a work."-Bullions's Eng. Gram., p. 82. "To be surety for a stranger [,] is dangerous."-Ib. "Not to know what happened before you were born, is to be always a child."-Ib. "Nescire quid acciderit antequam natus es, est semper esse puerum."-Ib. "ETT TOV αἰσχρων . . . τόπων, ὧν ἡμῖν ποτὲ κύριοι φαίνεσθαι προϊεμένους.” “It is a shame to be seen giving up countries of which we were once masters."-DEMOSTHENES: ib. What support these examples give to this grammarian's new notion of the objective indefinite," or to his still later seizure of Greene's doctrine of " the predicate-nominative," the learned reader may judge. All the Latin and Greek grammarians suppose an ellipsis, in such instances; but some moderns are careless enough of that, and of the analogy of General Grammar in this case, to have seconded the Doctor in his absurdity. See Farmum's Practical Gram., p. 23; and S. W. Clark's, p. 149. 2. Professor Hart has an indecisive remark on this construction, as follows: "Sometimes a verb in the infinitive mood has a noun after it without any other noun before it; as, To be a good man, is not so easy a thing as many people imagine.' Here man' may be parsed as used indefinitely after the verb to be. It is not easy to say in what case the noun is in such sentences. The analogy of the Latin would seem to indicate the objec tive. Thus, Not to know what happened in past years, is to be always a child, Latin, semper esse puerum.' In like manner, in English, we may say, 'Its being me, need make no change in your determination."—Hart's English Gram., p. 127.

son.

3. These learned authors thus differ about what certainly admits of no other solution than that which is given in the Observation above. To parse the nouns in question, “as used indefinitely," without case, and to call them "objectives indefinite," without agreement or government, are two methods equally repugnant to reaThe last suggestion of Hart's is also a false argument for a true position. The phrases, Its bring me,' and “To be a good man," are far from being constructed "in like manner." The former is manifestly bad English; because its and me are not in the same case. But S. S. Greene would say, " Its being I, is right." For in a similar instance, he has this conclusion: "Hence, in abridging the following proposition, I was not aware that it was he,' we should say of its being he,' not 'his' nor him.'"-Greene's Analysis, 1st Ed., p. When being becomes a noun, no case after it appears to be very proper; but this author, thus " abridg ing" four syllables into five, produces an anomalous construction which it would be much better to avoid.

171.

Madrid, is no easy matter; and yet it is necessary."-Home's Art of Thinking, p. 89. That is, For a traveller to be an Englishman in London," &c. "It is certainly as easy to be a scholar, as a gamester."-Harris's Hermes, p. 425. That is, "It is as easy for a young man to be a scholar, as it is for him to be a gamester." "To be an eloquent speaker, in the proper sense of the word, is far from being a common or easy attainment."-Blair's Rhet., p. 337. Here attainment is in the nominative, after is-or, rather after being, for it follows both; and speaker, in the objective after to be. "It is almost as hard a thing [for a man] to be a poet in despite of fortune, as it is [for one to be a poet] in despite of nature.' -Cowley's Preface to his Poems, p. vii.

OBS. 13.-Where precision is necessary, loose or abstract infinitives are improper; as, "But to be precise, signifies, that they express that idea, and no more."-Blair's Rhet., p. 94; Murray's Gram., 301; Jamieson's Rhet., 64. Say rather: " But, for an author's words to be precise, signifies, that they express his exact idea, and nothing more or less."

OBS. 14. The principal verbs that take the same case after as before them, except those which are passive, are the following: to be, to stand, to sit, to lie, to live, to grow, to become, to turn, to commence, to die, to expire, to come, to go, to range, to wander, to return, to seem, to appear, to remain, to continue, to reign. There are doubtless some others, which admit of such a construction; and of some of these, it is to be observed, that they are sometimes transitive, and govern the objective: as, "To commence a suit."-Johnson. “O continue thy loving kindness unto them."-Psalms, xxxvi, 10. "A feather will turn the scale."-Shak. "Return him a trespass offering."-1 Samuel. "For it becomes me so to speak."-Dryden. But their construction with like cases is easily distinguished by the sense; as, "When I commenced author, my aim was to amuse."-Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 286. "Men continue men's destroyers."-Nixon's Parser, p. 56. "'Tis most just, that thou turn rascal.”—SHAK., Timon of Athens. "He went out mate, but he returned captain."—Murray's Gram., p. 182. "After this event he became physician to the king." -15. That is, "When I began to be an author," &c.

"Ev'n mean self-love becomes, by force divine,

The scale to measure others' wants by thine."—Pope.

OBS. 15.-The common instructions of our English grammars, in relation to the subject of the preceding rule, are exceedingly erroneous and defective. For example: "The verb TO BE, has always a nominative case after it, unless it be in the infinitive mode."-Lowth's Gram., p. 77. "The verb TO BE requires the same case after it as before it."—Churchill's Gram., p. 142. The verb TO BE, through all its variations, has the same case after it, expressed or understood, as that which next precedes it."-Murray's Gram., p. 181; Alger's, 62; Merchant's, 91; Putnam's, 116; Smith's, 97; and many others. "The verb TO BE has usually the same case after it, as that which immediately precedes it."-Hall's Gram., p. 31. "Neuter verbs have the same case after them, as that which next precedes them."—Folker's Gram., p. 14. "Passive verbs which signify naming, and others of a similar nature, have the same case before and after them."-Murray's Gram., p. 182. "A Noun or Pronoun used in predication with a verb, is in the Independent Case. ExAMPLES-Thou art a scholar.' 'It is I.' 'God is love." "-S. W. Clark's Pract. Gram., p. 149. So many and monstrous are the faults of these rules, that nothing but very learned and reverend authority, could possibly impose such teaching anywhere. The first, though written by Lowth, is not a whit wiser than to say, "The preposition to has always an infinitive mood after it, unless it be a preposition." And this latter absurdity is even a better rule for all infinitives, than the former for all predicated nominatives. Nor is there much more fitness in any of the rest. "The verb TO BE, through all," or even in any, of its parts, has neither "always" nor usually a case "expressed or understood" after it; and, even when there is a noun or a pronoun put after it, the case is, in very many instances, not to be determined by that which "next" or "immediately" precedes the verb. Examples: "A sect of freethinkers is a sum of ciphers."—Bentley. “And I am this day weak, though anointed king."-2 Sam., iii, 39. "What made Luther a great man, was his unshaken reliance on God."—Kortz's Life of Luther, p. 13. "The devil offers his service; he is sent with a positive commission to be a lying spirit in the mouth of all the prophets."-Calvin's Institutes, p. 131. It is perfectly certain that in these four texts, the words sum, king, reliance, and spirit, are nominatives, after the verb or participle; and not objectives, as they must be, if there were any truth in the common assertion, "that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike."-Smith's New Gram., p. 98. Not only may the nominative before the verb be followed by an objective, but the nominative after it may be preceded by a possessive; as, "Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son."-"It is the king's chapel, and it is the king's court."-Amos, vii, 13. How ignorant then must that person be, who cannot see the falsity of the instructions above cited! How careless the reader who overlooks it!

NOTES TO RULE VI.

NOTE I.-The putting of a noun in an unknown case after a participle or a participial noun, produces an anomaly which it seems better to avoid; for the cases ought to be clear, even in exceptions to the common rules of construction. Examples (1.)" WIDOWHOOD, n. The state of being a widow."-Webster's Dict. Say rather, WIDOWHOOD, n. The state of a widow."-Johnson, Walker, Worcester. (2.) "I had a suspicion of the fellow's being a swindler." Say rather, “I had a

66

suspicion that the fellow was a swindler." (3.) "To prevent its being a dry detail of terms."-Buck. Better, "To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms."*,

NOTE II.-The nominative which follows a verb or participle, ought to accord in signification, either literally or figuratively, with the preceding term which is taken for a sign of the same thing. Errors: (1.)" To be convicted of bribery, was then a crime altogether unpardonable."-Blair's Rhet., p. 265. To be convicted of a crime, is not the crime itself; say, therefore, " Bribery was then a crime altogether unpardonable." (2.) "The second person is the object of the Imperative."—Murray's Gram., Index, ii, 292. Say rather, "The second person is the subject of the imperative;" for the object of a verb is the word governed by it, and not its nominative.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VI.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.-OF PROPER IDENTITY.

"Who would not say, 'If it be me,' rather than, If it be I?”—Priestley's Gram., p. 105. [FORMULE.-Not proper, because the pronoun me, which comes after the neuter verb be, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, the verb's nominative,† which refers to the same thing. But, according to Rule 6th, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Therefore, me should be I; thus, "Who would not say, If it be I,' rather than, 'If it be me?'"']

"Who is there? It is me."-Priestley, ib., p. 104. "It is him."-Id., ib., 104. "Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes, they are them."--Id., ib., 104. "It is not me you are in love with."-Addison's Spect., No. 290; Priestley's Gram., p. 104; and Campbell's Rhet., p. 203. "It cannot be me."-SWIFT: Priestley's Gram., p. 104. "To that which once was thee." -PRIOR: ib., 104. "There is but one man that she can have, and that is me."-CLARISSA: ib., 104. "We enter, as it were, into his body, and become, in some measure, him."-ADAM SMITH: ib., p. 105. "Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am not thee."-Shak., Timon. "He knew not whom they were."-Milnes, Greek Gram., p. 234. "Who do you think me to be?"—Priestley's Gram., p. 108. "Whom do men say that I, the Son of man, am ?"--Matt., xvi, 13. "But whom say ye that I am ?"-Ib., xvi, 15. "Whom think ye that I am? I am not he."-Acts, xiii, 25. No; I am mistaken; I perceive it is not the person whom I supposed it was."- Winter in London, ii, 66. "And while it is Him I serve, life is not without value."-Zenobia, i, 76. "Without ever dreaming it was him."--Life of Charles XII, p. 271. "Or he was not the illiterate personage whom he affected to be."--Montgomery's Lect. "Yet was he him, who was to be the greatest apostle of the Gentiles."--Barclay's Works, i, 540. "Sweet was the thrilling ecstacy; I know not if 'twas love, or thee."-Queen's Wake, p. 14. "Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was me."-Dryden, Prol. "No matter where the vanquish'd be, nor whom."-Rowe's Lucan, B. i, l. 676. "No, I little thought it had been him."-Life of Gratton. "That reverence and godly fear, whose object is Him who can destroy both body and soul in hell.'"-Maturin's Sermons, p. 312. "It is us that they seek to please, or rather to astonish."- West's Letters, p. 28. "Let the same be she that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac."-Gen., xxiv, 14. "Although I knew it to be he."--Dickens's Notes, p. 9. "Dear gentle youth, is't none but thee ?"Dorset's Poems, p. 4. "Whom do they say it is ?"-Fowler's E. Gram., § 493. "These are her garb, not her; they but express

Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress."-Hannah More.

Parkhurst and Sanborn, by what they call "A NEW RULE," attempt to determine the doubtful or unknown case which this note censures, and to justify the construction as being well-authorized and hardly avoidable. Their rule is this: "A noun following a neuter or [a] passive participial noun, is in the nominative independent. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, always precedes the participial noun, either expressed or understood, signifying the same thing as the noun does that follows it." To this new and exceptionable dogma, Sanborn adds: "This form of expression is one of the most common idioms of the language, and in general composition cannot be well avoided. In confirmation of the statement made, various authorities are subjoined. Two grammarians only, to our knowledge, have remarked on this phraseology: Participles are sometimes preceded by a possessive case and followed by a nominative; as, There is no doubt of his being a great statesman.' B. GREENLEAF. 'We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained unchanged in connexion with it; as, I have some recollection of his father's being a judge. GOOLD BROWN."-Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 189. On what principle the words statesman and judge can be affirmed to be in the nominative case, I see not; and certainly they are not nominatives "independent," because the word being, after which they stand, is not itself independent. It is true, the phraseology is common enough to be good English: but I dislike it; and if this citation from me, was meant for a confirmation of the reasonless dogmatism preceding, it is not made with fairness, because my opinion of the construction is omitted by the quoter. See Institutes of English Gram., p. 162. In an other late grammar,--a shameful work, because it is in great measure a tissue of petty larcenies from my Institutes, with alterations for the worse,-I find the following absurd "Note," or Rule: "An infinitive or participle is often followed by a substantive explanatory of an indefinite person or thing. The substantive is then in the objective case, and may be called the objective after the infinitive, or participle; [as,] It is an honor to be the author of such a work. His being a great man, did not make him a happy man. By being an obedient child, you will secure the approbation of your parents."-Farnum's Practical Gram., 1st Ed., p. 25. The first of these examples is elliptical; (see Obs. 12th above, and the Marginal Note;) the second is bad English,-or, at any rate, directly repugnant to the rule for same cases; and the third parsed wrong by the rule: "child" is in the nominative case. See Obs. 7th above.

+ When the preceding case is not "the verb's nominative," this phrase must of course be omitted; and when the word which is to be corrected, does not literally follow the verb, it may be proper to say, "constructively follows," in lieu of the phrase, “comes after."

UNDER NOTE I.-THE CASE DOUBTFUL.

"I had no knowledge of there being any connexion between them."-Stone, on Freemasonry, p. 25. "To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same as being the actors of it ourselves."Murray's Key, p. 170. "It must arise from feeling delicately ourselves."-Blair's Rhet., p. 330; Murray's Gram., 248. "By reason of there not having been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement."-Mass. Legislature, 1839. “PUPILAGE, n. The state of being a scholar."-Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester. "Then the other part's being the definition would make it include all verbs of every description."--O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 343. "John's being my friend,* saved me from inconvenience." -Ib., p. 201. "William's having become a judge, changed his whole demeanor."-Ib., p. 201. "William's having been a teacher, was the cause of the interest which he felt."-Ib., p. 216. "The being but one among many stifleth the chidings of conscience."-Book of Thoughts, p. 131. "As for its being esteemed a close translalation, I doubt not many have been led into that error by the shortness of it."-Pope's Pref. to Homer. "All presumption of death's being the destruction of living beings, must go upon supposition that they are compounded, and so discerptible."-Butler's Analogy, p. 63. "This argues rather their being proper names."-Churchill's Gram., p. 382.

But may

it not be retorted, that "Un

its being a gratification is that which excites our resentment ?"— Campbell's Rhet., p. 145. der the common notion, of its being a system of the whole poetical art."-Blair's Rhet., p. 401. "Whose time or other circumstances forbid their becoming classical scholars."-Literary Convention, p. 113. "It would preclude the notion of his being a merely fictitious personage."-Philological Museum, i, 446. "For, or under pretence of their being heretics or infidels."-The Catholic Oath; Geo. III, 31st. "We may here add Dr. Horne's sermon on Christ's being the Object of religious Adoration."-Relig. World, Vol. ii, p. 200. "To say nothing of Dr. Priestley's being a strenuous advocate," &c.—Ib., ii, 207. "By virtue of Adam's being their public head.”—Ib., ii, 233. "Objections against there being any such moral plan as this."-Butler's Analogy, p. 57. "A greater instance of a man's being a blockhead."-Spect., No. 520. "We may insure or promote its being a happy state of existence to ourselves."-Gurney's Evidences, p. 86. "By its often falling a victim to the same kind of unnatural treatment.”—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 41. "Their appearing foolishness is no presumption against this."-Butler's Analogy, p. 189. what arises from their being offences; i. e. from their being liable to be perverted."-Ib., p. 185. "And he entered into a certain man's house, named Justus, one that worshipped God."-Acts, xviii, 7.

UNDER NOTE II.-OF FALSE IDENTIFICATION.

"But

"The

"The

"But to be popular, he observes, is an ambiguous word."-Blair's Rhet., p. 307. "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is often the nominative case to a verb."-L. Murray's Index, Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 290. "When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person; as, 'I, James, of the city of Boston.""-R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 43. name of the person spoken to, is the second person; as, James, come to me.'"-Ibid. name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third person; as, 'James has come.'”--Ibid. "The object [of a passive verb] is always its subject or nominative case.”—Ib., p. 62. "When a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the actor."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 44. "And the person commanded, is its nominative."-Ingersoll's Gram., p. 120. "The first person is that who speaks."-Pasquier's Levizac, p. 91. "The Conjugation of a Verb is its different variations or inflections throughout the Moods and Tenses."-Wright's Gram., p. 80. "The first person is the speaker. The second person is the one spoken to. The third person is the one spoken of"-Parker and Fox's Gram., Part i, p. 6; Hiley's, 18. "The first person is the one that speaks, or the speaker."-Sanborn's Gram., pp. 23 and 75. "The second person is the one that is spoken to, or addressed."-Ibid. "The third person is the one that is spoken of, or that is the topic of conversation."-Ibid. "I, is the first person Singular. We, is the first person Plural."-Murray's Gram., p. 51; Alger's, Ingersoll's, and many others. "Thou, is the second person Singular. Ye or you, is the second person Plural."-Ibid. "He, she, or it, is the third person Singular. They, is the third person Plural."—Ibid. "The nominative caso is the actor, or subject of the verb."Kirkham's Gram., p. 43. "The noun John is the actor, therefore John is in the nominative case."-Ibid. "The actor is always the nominative case."-Smith's New Gram., p. 62. "The nominative case is always the agent or actor."-Mack's Gram., p. 67. "Tell the part of speech each name is."-J. Flint's Gram., p. 6. "What number is boy? Why? What number is pens? Why?"-Ib., p. 27. "The speaker is the first person, the person spoken to, the second person, and the person or thing spoken of, is the third person.”—Ib., p. 26. "What nouns are masculine gender? All males are masculine gender."—Ib., p. 28. An interjection is a sudden emotion of the mind."-Barrett's Gram., p. 62.

The author of this example supposes friend to be in the nominative case, though John's is in the possessive, and both words denote the same person. But this is not only contrary to the general rule for same cases, but contrary to his own application of one of his own rules. Example: "Maria's duty, as a teacher, is, to instruct her pupils." Here, he says, "Teacher is in the possessive case, from its relation to the name Maria, denoting the same object."-Peirce's Gram., p. 211. This explanation, indeed, is scarcely intelligible, on account of its grammatical inaccuracy. He means, however, that, Teacher is in the possessive case, from its relation to the name Maria's, the two words denoting the same object." No word can be possessive from its relation to the name Maria," except by standing immediately before it, in the usual manner of possessives; as, “Sterne's Maria."

RULE VII.-OBJECTIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case: as, "The temple of fame stands upon the grave: the flame that burns upon its altars, is kindled from the ashes of great men."-Hazlitt.

"Life is His gift, from whom whate'er life needs,

With ev'ry good and perfect gift, proceeds."-Cowper, Vol. i, p. 95.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VII.

OBS. 1.-To this rule there are no exceptions; for prepositions, in English, govern no other case than the objective.* But the learner should observe that most of our prepositions may take the imperfect participle for their object, and some, the pluperfect, or preperfect; as, “On opening the trial they accused him of having defrauded them."-"A quick wit, a nice judgment, &c., could not raise this man above being received only upon the foot of contributing to mirth and diversion." -Steele. And the preposition to is often followed by an infinitive verb; as, "When one sort of wind is said to whistle, and an other to roar; when a serpent is said to hiss, a fly to buzz, and failing timber to crash; when a stream is said to flow, and hail to rattle; the analogy between the word and the thing signified, is plainly discernible."-Blair's Rhet., p. 55. But let it not be supposed that participles or infinitives, when they are governed by prepositions, are therefore in the objective case; for case is no attribute of either of these classes of words: they are indeclinable in English, whatever be the relations they assume. They are governed as participles, or as infinitives, and not as cases. The mere fact of government is so far from creating the modification governed, that it necessarily presupposes it to exist, and that it is something cognizable in etymology.

OBS. 2.-The brief assertion, that, "Prepositions govern the objective case," which till very lately our grammarians have universally adopted as their sole rule for both terms, the governing and the governed,--the preposition and its object,-is, in respect to both, somewhat exceptionable, being but partially and lamely applicable to either. It neither explains the connecting nature of the preposition, nor applies to all objectives, nor embraces all the terms which a preposition may govern. It is true, that prepositions, when they introduce declinable words, or words that have cases, always govern the objective; but the rule is liable to be misunderstood, and is in fact often misapplied, as if it meant something more than this. Besides, in no other instance do grammarians attempt to parse both the governing word and the governed, by one and the same rule. I have therefore placed the objects of this government here, where they belong in the order of the part3 of speech, expressing the rule in such terms as cannot be mistaken; and have also given, in its proper place, a distinct rule for the construction of the preposition itself. See Rule 23d.

OBS. 3.-Prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with adjectives, the real object of the relation being thought to be some objective noun understood: as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high; i. e. in a vain manner, in secret places, at the first time, on high places. Such phrases usually imply time, place, degree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may supply the ellipsis.

OBS. 4.-In some phrases, a preposition seems to govern a perfect participle; but these expressions are perhaps rather to be explained as being elliptical: as, "To give it up for lost;"-"To take that for granted which is disputed."-Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 109. That is, perhaps, To give it up for a thing lost;"- To take that for a thing granted," &c. In the following passage the words ought and should are employed in such a manner that it is difficult to say to what part of speech they belong: "It is that very character of ought and should which makes justice a law to us; and the same character is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more faintly than to justice."-Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 286. The meaning seems to be, "It is that very character of being owed and required, that makes justice a law to us;" and this mode of expression, as it is more easy to be parsed, is perhaps more grammatical than his Lordship's. But, as preterits are sometimes put by enallage for participles, a reference of them to this figure may afford a mode of explanation in parsing, whenever they are introduced by a preposition, and not by a nominative: as, "A kind of conquest Cæsar made here; but made not here his brag Of, came, and saw, and overcame.”—Shak., Cymb., iii, 1. That is,-"of having come, and seen, and overcome." Here, however, by assuming that a sentence is the object of the preposition, we may suppose the pro

Dr. Webster, who was ever ready to justify almost any usage for which he could find half a dozen respectable authorities, absurdly supposes, that who may sometimes be rightly preferred to whom, as the object of a preposition. His remark is this: "In the use of who as an interrogative, there is an apparent deviation from regular construction-it being used without distinction of case; as, Who do you speak to Who is she mar ried to ?' Who is this reserved for?' Who was it made by? This idiom is not merely colloquial: it is found in the writings of our best authors."-Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 194; his Improved Gram., p. 136. "In this phrase, Who do you speak to?' there is a deviation from regular construction; but the practice of thus using who, in certain familiar phrases, seems to be established by the best authors."—Webster's Rudiments of E. Gram., p. 72. Almost any other solecism may be quite as well justified as this. The present work shows, in fact, a great mass of authorities for many of the incongruities which it ventures to rebuke.