The eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous range of country, extending to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pasturage, but unfit for agriculture; abounding, however, in those rich quarries of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the architectural wonders of Egypt.

On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony ridge covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert. This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would otherwise desolate the whole country.

Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and interesting monuments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Phile and Elephantine, containing the proudest edifices of antiquity; lower down, the city of Apollo; then Thebes, filling the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous temples, more like mountains than human edifices, colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river; and lastly, Dendera, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple.

Middle Egypt is a wider valley. It contains the lake Moeris, an immense reservoir, partly natural, partly artificial, and affording such facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity, was near Arsinoë. Below Arsinoë was Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper Egypt. But the most remarkable monuments of this district are the Pyramids.

Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered with flourishing cities, as Sais, Naucratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the name, and proves by its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder.

The more civilized portion of the Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social life, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, would scarcely be credited. It was the great object of the sacerdotal and royal policy, to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the pastoral and plundering tribes on their northeastern frontiers: and hence we find it recorded, that "every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians."

SECTION II.-Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians.

It appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher castes of priests and warriors were fairer than the other classes. It has been conjectured that the Egyptians derived their system of civilization from the Hindus: but it is difficult to conceive how this could be.

Local circumstances produced marked differences in the habits and

manners of the people. In the mountainous eastern districts and in the fens of the Delta, where agriculture was impossible, the inhabitants led a pastoral life. On the Nile and along the coast, were tribes of fishermen. In the rich plains, dwelt the more civilized part of the nation. The institution of castes existed among them. The priests and warriors were the most honored; next, the agriculturists, merchants, mariners, and artisans; the lowest caste was that of shepherds.

The migrations of the priestly caste from their native regions in the south, were not simultaneous; they formed settlements at different times, in the most fertile portions of the valley. The central point of the colony was always a temple, round which cities were gradually formed. These settlements afterward led to the division of the country into nomes, a name given by the Egyptians to a city, its environs and dependant villages. There was a religious (as originally a political) distinction between these nomes: each city had its own presiding deity, and the animals regarded as sacred in one nome were not respected in another. The history of these petty states is unknown; but they were finally absorbed in the dominion of Thebes and Memphis.

The nations bordering on the Egyptians were, for the most part, barbarous and wandering tribes, whose avarice was roused by the increasing opulence of the valley of the Nile. The Hyk'sos, or shepherd-kings, as they were called, came from Arabia, and, after many predatory incursions, made themselves masters of Lower and Middle Egypt.

Egypt became united under one sovereign, after the expulsion of the Hyk'sos: and the divisions of the people into castes, and of the country into nomes, were permanently fixed. The priestly caste was subdivided into families, each devoted and restricted to a separate temple and a particular God. Over each of these sacerdotal subdivisions a high-priest presided, whose office was hereditary; and the high-priests of metropolitan temples enjoyed authority almost equal to that of kings. And their influence was greatly strengthened by their monopoly of every branch of scientific knowledge. They were not only priests, but also judges, soothsayers, physicians, architects, and sculptors.

The warrior-caste ranked next to that of the priests: the royal family belonged to it. Certain nomes were assigned to the support of this caste, most of which were in Lower Egypt, where the country was most exposed to attack.

The Egyptians were the earliest nation that organized a regular army, and thus laid the foundation of the whole system of ancient warfare. A brief account of their military affairs will therefore illustrate, not only their history, but that of the great Asiatic monarchies, and of the Greeks, during the heroic ages.

The most important division of an Egyptian army was the body of war-chariots, used instead of cavalry. These chariots were mounted on two wheels, and made, especially the wheels, with great care. They were hung low; open behind, so that the warrior could easily step in and out; and without seat. They were drawn by two horses, and generally contained two warriors, one of whom managed the steeds

while the other fought. Nations were distinguished from each other by the shape of their chariots.

Great attention was paid to the breeding and training of horses, in Egypt. The harness and housings of the horses were richly decorated; and fixed to the chariots, on the outside, was a quiver and bowcase, decorated also with extraordinary taste and skill. The bow was the national weapon, employed both by infantry and cavalry. No nation of antiquity paid so much attention to archery as the Egyptians; their arrows were drawn to the ear; and their bows were more powerful, and their arrows better aimed, than those of other nations. The children of the warrior-caste were trained from earliest infancy to the practice of archery.

The arms of the Egyptian heavy-armed infantry were a spear, a dagger, a short sword, a helmet, and a shield. Pole-axes and battleaxes were occasionally used. Coats-of-mail were used only by the principal officers, and some remarkable warriors, like Goliath, the champion of the Philistines. The light troops were armed with swords, battleaxes, maces, and clubs.

The system of discipline and drill was very complete. Every battalion had its standard, with some symbol or sacred object represented on it, usually the cognizance of the nome or tribe. The soldiers were levied by conscription, drilled to the sound of the trumpet, and taught to march in measured time.

Cavalry, in the earlier period, were not employed as a military body, but used as skirmishers, vedettes, and expresses, rather than as warriors. The Egyptians generally treated their captives with great cruelty, putting them to death, or reducing them to slavery.

The religion and government of Egypt were intimately blended: there were prescribed forms and ceremonies for every important action, which even kings dared not neglect. This gave the priests paramount control over public affairs and domestic life. The religion of the priests seems to have been more refined than the gross idolatry of the lower classes: one general idea, however, pervades the entire system -the importance of agriculture to a state. Hence, the great influence of astronomy in their theology, as determining the times and seasons for agricultural operations; hence, also, the deification of the productive powers of nature. Never were a people more dependant on priestly astrologers than the Egyptians: the stars were consulted for every undertaking, private or public, and the priests alone had the right to consult them and deliver their oracles. The belief in a future state influenced every portion of Egyptian life: but the nature of the creed is difficult to be explained. In fact, there were two inconsistent creeds, the belief in transmigration of souls, confined to the priestly caste; and the belief that the soul will continue as long as the body endures -whence the practice of so carefully embalming, and of hewing sepulchres in the solid rock. The latter was the popular opinion; hence, the importance of the rites of burial, and the dread of the trial after death, when a tribunal, under priestly direction, determined whether the body should be placed in the tomb, or left to natural decay.

The relative position of the lower castes varied at different times; but all trades and professions were hereditary. It was probably sup

posed that this exclusive dedication of families to separate employments would insure perfection in the arts; and, certainly, the progress of the Egyptians, especially in architecture, surpasses that of any other

nation.

Gymnastic exercises and music were the favorite amusements of the ancient Egyptians. At their meals, they used chairs and tables not unlike our own. Women were treated more respectfully than in other countries of the East. Great respect was paid to age and rank.

The principal trees of Egypt were the sycamore, the fig, the pomegranate, the peach, the locust-tree, and the vine. Great care was taken of the vines. Wine was used in great quantities, by the nobles and wealthy merchants. Of esculent vegetables growing wild, the most remarkable were the lotus, a kind of lily, and the papyrus; the leaves of the latter, dried and prepared, were used for writing upon. The cultivated vegetables were corn and pulse, cotton, melons, cucumbers, onions, &c.

The domestic animals of the Egyptians were the same as those of most civilized countries. The cat was held in particular honor. The animals of the mountain and desert were the wild ox, the goat and sheep, and the antelope. They seem to have obtained camels from some foreign country. Among the amphibious animals of the Nile, the crocodile and the hippopotamus deserve to be noticed, the skin of the latter being regarded as the best covering for shields. Wild and tame fowl abounded; the eggs of geese and other poultry were hatched in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a process still used by the modern Copts..

SECTION III.-History of Egypt from the earliest period to the Accession of Psammetichus.

FROM B. C. 1900 To B. c. 650.

EGYPT was originally composed of several small states, of which the first were founded in Upper Egypt. Though Thebes was the most ancient of the powerful states, Memphis is that of which we have the earliest accounts. It was the metropolis of a powerful kingdom when it was visited by the patriarch Abraham, and already the centre of a flourishing corn-trade. The court of the reigning Pharaoh was regularly organized: the jealousy of foreigners, especially the heads of pastoral tribes, was not yet apparent, for Abraham was received with great hospitality.

In the interval between the departure of Abraham from Egypt and the sale of Joseph to Potiphar, the Hyk'sos and other wandering tribes had began to make incursions into the valley of the Nile, and to ravage its fruitful fields. The policy which induced the Pharaoh who then occupied the throne to grant the land of Goshen to the colony of the Israelites, was equally creditable to his sagacity and generosity; it was a pasturage and frontier province, forming the eastern barrier of Egypt toward Syria and Palestine, the countries from which invasion was most dreaded. By assigning this district to Jacob and his family, it was covered in a short time by a numerous, brave, and industrious people, giving additional security and resources to the country.