Chivalry threw a deceptive lustre over all the operations of war, while in times of peace, (slight and transient in those unsettled states of society as the sun-beam in a winter's day) she brought in her train "Pomp, and feast, and revelry," she enlivened the gloom and ennui of the baronial castle, and afforded to a wretched and degraded peasantry, the most brilliant shows, and gayest holidays. And, indeed, when we reflect on the splendour of the festivals, and the imposing pomp of the tournaments, which gave so much lustre to this institution, we shall cease to wonder at the predilection of all classes for the deeds and amusements of the chivalric days; a predilection felt and beautifully expressed by "the great poetic sire of Italy," when he laments, that fierce and long continued civil war, should have banished from Florence, "The ladies, and the shows, the feasts and knights, In the opinion of a most excellent historian,* "the point of honour, the humanity that accompanies the operations of war, and the refinements of modern gallantry, the three chief circumstances which distinguish modern from ancient manners, may, perhaps, be attributed,-in a great measure, to this whimsical institution." With regard to the two first," the point of honour, and the humanity that accompanies all the operations of modern warfare," chivalry certainly merits some praise; the word of a knight was considered inviolable, and every rule and bylaw of this institution strictly forbade combatants entering the lists, except on the level of perfect equality: judges were appointed, whose duty it was to examine the armour and weapons of the respective knights, and an oath was administered to each, requiring them to affirm, "that they had used no medicament, and carried about them no spell, to render themselves invulnerable." A few days previous to a combat or tourney, all the knights who proposed to enter the lists, hung up their shields in the cloister of a neighbouring monastery, where they were viewed. If a lady touched one of these shields, it was considered an accusation of its owner, who was immediately brought before the judges of the tournament, tried with great solemnity, and if found guilty of having defamed a lady, or of having done any thing Robertson in his Charles Vth. unbecoming the character of a true and courteous knight, was degraded and expelled. As a necessary consequence of making "trial by battle" the arbiter of all questions, women, priests, and minors, were permitted to demand a champion to assert their rights, or resist their oppressions, which they were unable to maintain or contend against themselves. It was in the character of champion, that the gallant knight looked forward to the highest fame, and expected the fairest guerdon; for the lady in whose cause he couched his lance, would reward his victory with her brightest smiles; and the priest, for whose assistance he rushed to combat, would charm him from danger by his prayers, or ensure him a quick entrance into paradise. The unmanly triumph of the victor over the dead body of his vanquished rival, which disgusts us so much, and so justly, in classical story, has no counterpart in the records of chivalry;-the degrading spectacle of the captive monarch disgracing the triumph of his conqueror, which haughty Rome, in the zenith of her glory, did not disdain to exhibit, was alike unknown to the knights;-and the rude and unenlightened nations of northern Europe, in their warfare, presented acts of honour, generosity, and courtesy, unequalled in the history of the polished people of antiquity. The praise of having elevated European females to the rank which they now hold in society, and of having introduced that system of respectful gallantry which so much softened the manners of the higher classes, and subdued the rigours of the feudal system, has been always conceded to chivalry. That chivalry encouraged this spirit is true, and there are few incidents in the tedious history of the middle ages, on which we dwell with so much delight, as those which record the superior valour of the knight, who, in the gallant Froissart's language, "dyd such dedes of armes for the ladye he loved entirelye:" and even in the present day we sympathise in the hopes and fears of another knight, who the same historian relates, " loved hys lordes dochter who sent hym riche armor, fyne horses, and lovynge letters." But the spirit and character of chivalrous gallantry, was known to our ancestors previous to the earliest historical records. Both Cesar and Tacitus mention with astonishment the respectful attention paid by the northern tribes to their women. In subsequent ages, this feeling seems to have increased; and in the ancient laws of the Saxons and Danes, and the war-songs or ballads of the Scandinavians, we find similar expressions of constancy, attachment, and deference to the fair one, which interests us in the Norman and Provençal romances. In the war-songs of that singularly intrepid and adventurous race, the Norsemen, we continually find allusions to customs and feelings, which remind us of chivalry. These kings of the sea," whose rude barks at one period wafted them in triumph from the frozen ocean to the Mediterranean; who boasted a line of settlements from Norway to Southern Spain; and who were the ancestors of the Normans, the founders of chivalry; were as distinguished for their deference to women, as by their unconquerable valour, and irrepressible spirit. The bold Norman launched his frail bark on the stormy ocean, and welcomed his enemy, and exulted in the tempest, that his betrothed might behold and reward his skill and courage. "I die (sang Reg"ner Lodbrek), but my deeds shall not perish. I chose a "worthy mother for my children, and Aslanga will record "and rejoice in my fame." 66 "I have sailed to many lands, and encountered many dangers," (sang Hardyknute,) almost in the very words of the despairing knight;" I fight valiantly, sit firmly on my "horse, I dart the lance, am skilful at the oar, yet the "Russian maiden scorns me." It were needless to multiply instances; these are sufficient to shew, that although chivalry encouraged the spirit of gallantry, yet its origin was long previous. The praise, next to having originated a good thing, is that of having continued and encouraged it; and this commendation, in regard to the "refinements of gallantry," is certainly due to chivalry. Let us now turn to the equally important, but less pleasing task, of ascertaining the defects of this singular institution. The most obvious fault seems to be its exclusively warlike character. Although this circumstance, more perhaps than any other, contributed to its extensive adoption at the time of its institution; and although this military character has not infrequently been pointed out as one of the boasts of chivalry; yet the Christian, in the nineteenth century, may be permitted to question the beneficial tendencies of an institution which made war the sole field of exertion, in despite of the almost endless varieties of human character; and which, by throwing the polish of courtesy over its operations, seduced the mind into admiration of actions which it would otherwise censure. Those who think there are nobler fields of enterprise than the field of battle, and higher pursuits than those dictated by a brutal VOL. IV. No. 8. U courage, and that recklessness of life which arises from ignorance of its value, will refuse to give unqualified praise to an institution which made the sword the remedy of all wrongs, and single combat the arbiter of all differences. Who can suppress a smile on reading that the point, "which was the authentic liturgy," a question which had long disturbed two neighbouring monasteries, was at last decided by an appeal to the sword; the victorious combatant bearing off his liturgy in triumph, while the rival one was consigned to the flames. But it is melancholy to reflect, in cases of injury and oppression, how often the arm of innocence has been paralyzed by fear, and the sword of the guilty rendered resistless by desperation; how often the recreant knight, from the powerful protection of his feudal lord, has avoided his opponents, or from superior might has triumphed over them. These evils were not slight, or of rare occurrence. They appear repeatedly; and in numerous instances are they lamented by the writers of this period, who acknowledge that in most cases "might triumphed over right." To that knight who felt but little enthusiasm for war, considered as the road to glory, a powerful inducement was presented, in its being the path to wealth. Military fame might be a phantom too unreal and fleeting for his grosser taste and feeling; but money and land, "whyte mele, goode wynes, beffe, and fatte moutens," offered incitements to valour too powerful to be resisted; and many a knight, in the language of Sir John Soltier, exclaimed,* "Let us among "ourselves raise up the banner of St. George, and let us be "frendes to God, and enemyes to all the world; for without "we make ourselfes to be feared, wee gette nothynge." What of principle, and what degree of high moral feeling, could be expected from the knight, who was obliged by his oath of fealty to follow the banner of his liege lord wherever caprice or injustice might lead him,-who was expected to be the champion of a degraded priesthood, on every occasion when their cupidity was alarmed, or their vengeance awakened; and who had sworn to maintain doctrines, respecting which, it was heresy to enquire? It was the flower of Provençal chivalry which mustered beneath the walls of Albi; and who consigned to indiscriminate slaughter, men whose sole crime was, seeing too clearly the corruptions of the Roman church. It was a "preux che Vide Frissart, vol. 1. p. 393.; the whole passage is singularly characteristic of those times, and turbulent adventurers. 4 valier," and a boast of the age, Simon De Monfort, who ravaged with fire and sword the peaceful valleys, and sequestered habitations, of the innocent and virtuous Waldenses. During nearly five centuries which witnessed the undecaying glories of chivalry, the learned were neglected, the philosophic persecuted, the free enquirer rewarded with chains and death; while the helmet of the warrior, and the laurel of the victor, were elevated in more than regal majesty above the wreath of literature and of science. A second defect is, its exclusive character,-none but he of "gentle blood" could rise to the honour of knighthood; a magic line was drawn between the higher and lower classes, over which each were forbidden to step. This exclusive spirit presided even over their morality. Particular virtues were selected from the code of christian morality, and were held up to practice as "knightly virtues;" the principal were, honour, generosity, courtesy, and orthodoxy. The true knight was expected to be characterized by all these; but his honour was confined to his intercourse with his fellow knights and with the ladies, while "Jews, Turks, and Infidels," were most laudably placed without the sphere of its operation. The feelings of kindness and courtesy, which should embrace the whole family of man, were circumscribed within the walls of his castle, and the knight famed for every virtue, would coolly sell the children of his vassals in the public market, or depopulate a district to enlarge his forest; the far greater half of the human race was placed without the pale of his kindly feelings; and " envy, hatred, malice, and all uncharitableness," if exercised toward the paynim or heretic, was considered a religious duty. And easily could the gallant knight perform a splendid act of generosity toward his christian enemy, when the plunder of a mosque, or the spoliation of a Jew, furnished such ample means of repayment: and yet more easily could he, on high and solemn occasions, merit the praise of selfdenial, when by placing the cross on his shoulder, and joining that immense army of wild enthusiasts, who, undismayed by a century's defeat, still pressed to the Holy Land, he became licensed by the especial grace of the church, to commit every excess, and indulge in every crime. Indeed, his virtue seemed principally measured by the degree of hatred he bore to Jews and Infidels. "If one of these," said Louis 11th, the canonized monarch of France, "were to "ask me a reason for my faith, my answer would be by |