hearsed in death," (Haml. Shakesp.) are presented to view; a sight that must raise the most vehement and frantic emotions in the undisciplined breast of artless savages. Athenæus after Berosus, and the upright Alexander ab Alexandro after them, inform us that the Babylonians, every year, for five successive days, celebrated a feast, on which the slaves assumed authority over their masters, and one of them, who on this occasion was distinguished by a regal habit, was chosen to preside over the other domestics, and was called Zafarns, Zogana.-M. Goguet, indeed, (B. VI. c. ii. n.) says, "I would not, however, affirm, that the custom here spoken of had place in the ages now in question. It might have been only an imitation of the Saturnalia, and introduced among the Babylonians after the conquests of Alexander." But as the KPONIA were of very early institution, and celebrated at a period when probably the greater part of the customs existing in Greece were imported from the more oriental countries, by the first planters of its colonies, it may with reason be concluded, that the Greeks were the imitators in this particular, and not the BabyloniMacrobius cites the authority of L. Accius to prove the establishment of the Kponia, or Saturnalia, among the Greeks, even before the foundation of Rome: ans. Maxima pars Graiûm Saturno et maxime Athenæ Conficiunt sacra, quæ Cronia esse iterantur ab illis : Eumque diem celebrant : per agros urbesque fere omnes Exercent epulas læti: famulosque procurant Quisque suos: nostrique itidem : et mos traditus illinc Iste, ut cum dominis famuli epulentur ibidem. MACR. Sat. i. 7. edit. Zeunii. These Kona continued so late as to the times of Lucian and A. Gellius. The latter of these authors tells us the pleasant and liberal manner in which the Roman students, who were at Athens, spent the Saturnalia: they discussed questions of poetry, criticism and philosophy; and to him, who best solved a difficulty proposed, was given a crown of laurel. A. Gell. N. A. 1. 18. c. 2. Lucian has taken occasion from the Kgona to write a Dialogue, a Code of Saturnalian Laws, and three Epistles. In the dialogue, Saturn speaks thus on the effects of gaming with dice: "From hence, many who have a lucky cast have gotten food to satiety. But others, on the contrary, when their vessel has been wrecked on a rock so small as a die, have swum out quite naked." In his Crono-Solon, or Code of Saturnalian Laws, it is ordained, "Let there be perfect equality among slaves and free, among poor and rich. Let no one be permitted to be angry, or to express dissatisfaction, or to menace. The day before the feast, let some purifying sacrifice be carried round (by the rich), and let them banish from their houses, meanness, avarice, covetousness, and whatever similar vices cohabit with the generality of them." In the second Saturnalian Epistle, to the poor, who had complained of that inequality with which wealth and its appendages are distributed, in consolation it is replied, "Upon the whole, be assured you poor are deceived, and judge not rightly respecting the rich, if you think they are completely happy, and that they only lead a pleasant life-if you knew the fears and anxieties they experience, you would determine to avoid wealth." The third epistle exhorts the rich to a more humane treatment of the poor, and for this sensible and cogent reason, "You cannot inhabit cities, or govern states, unless the poor make part of your body politic, and if they contribute not to your happiness in ten thousand instances." It were to be wished that this satirist had always mixed with his raillery instruction equally salutary with this suggested by the Kona. There was among the Greeks another festival of a similar nature, as to the relaxation which was allowed slaves. The festival of Avengia was held at Athens for three days, in the month Anthesterion; which, according to Gaza's computation, answers to the latter end of our November, and beginning of December. This was a season of licentiousness and ebriety to the slaves, over whom there was no controul, till, at the expiration of the three days, proclamation was made, Θυραζε καρες, εκ ετ ̓ Ανθεσήρια. Slaves get ye out, the Anthesteria are at an end. In imitation of the Keona were instituted the Saturnalia at Rome by Numa Pompilius, whom Plutarch therefore affirms Ελληνικώτερον γεγονεναι Νομοθέτην 66 to have been a more humane legislator" than Lycurgus. The Roman law-giver was induced to adopt this festival, either from the equitable persuasion that those, who had laboured to procure the fruits of the earth, should annually enjoy a share of them; or else as a memorial of that equality which prevailed in Saturn's reign, when there was no such distinction as that of master and servant, but all were deemed equal and related. (See Plut. Num. et Lycurg.) The Libertas Decembris" is well known to every reader of Horace. The delicate satirist, with his usual dexterity and address, takes occasion from the freedom of speech allowed his servant, to inculcate this general doctrine," that all men are slaves, who are under the dominion of their vices; and that he only is free, who can command his appetites, and subdue his fears." The best comment on the satire to which allusion is here made (Sat. 7. 1.2.) occurs in Macrobius: a. "How comes it you behave with so great and so cruel disdain towards your slaves, as if they did not consist, and were not supported by the same elements as yourself, and as if they did not derive life from the same original cause? Will you recollect, that those whom you call your property are born of the same principles as yourself, enjoy alike the same sky, live and die alike? 8. They are slaves. a. Nay; and men too. B. They are slaves. a. Nay; rather fellow slaves with yourself-a man is a slave, but it is through necessity, but it is with a mind free. B. He is a slave. a. This circumstance shall be allowed as a sufficient reason for injuring him, if you can shew me the man that is not a slave. One man is a slave to his lusts, another to avarice, a third to ambition, all to hope, and all to fear; and surely no slavery is baser than voluntary slavery. We trample too on the man, who lies under the yoke imposed by fortune, as on a being wretched and contemptible: yet the yoke which we bring on our own necks we cannot bear to hear censured. For my part, I shall value men, not according to their fortunate or unfortunate situation, but according to their morals. Every person is himself the author of his own morals; but, as for condition in life, that is the allotment of chance." Macrobii Saturn. b. I. c. 11. This month of December gives to us also days of festivity: it will be well if we apply the time, which allows leisure from ordinary employment, rather to the cultivation of useful knowledge and moral improvement, than to intemperate indulgence in vicious pleasures. After all that has been done to reclaim us from the practice and guilt of sin, we shall be surely inexcusable if we are not at least equally wise, humane, and moderate, as the best of the heathens. 1788, Dec. O. S. T. Whittington, Feb. 28. MR. URBAN, HAVING heard it asserted in conversation, that our laws knew nothing of the gibbet, but that it was left to the discretion of the judges to set the ignominious mark of hanging in irons upon the more egregious criminals, with the intention of making a terrific example unto others; I, who am no lawman, had nothing to allege to the contrary. The assertion, however, of which I was not till then aware, awakened in my mind a desire of inquiring, as a matter of some curiosity, what our old authors, the monkish historians, had delivered on the subject. What I mean by gibbeting is, the hanging a notorious criminal in irons, as a public and lasting spectacle, after he has suffered death on the gallows, for the purpose of example, and of deterring others from the commission of the like heinous offences. A design truly benevolent and laudable. The word gibbet is at present of very doubtful derivation. Stewechius* deduces it from the antiquated word gabalus, and Skinnert and Junius‡ concur with him. But this etymology appears to me so forced and unnatural, that, though I have nothing better to offer, I cannot approve it, but shall leave this matter in suspense. Gibbet is a French word, as well as an English one; and Mons. Menage§ declares himself uncertain whether the French borrowed it from the English, or the English from the French. For my part, have no doubt but we had it from the French, the people of that nation seldom taking any thing from the English at so early a period as the 13th century, when, as we shall see hereafter, the gibbet was used here, and known currently by that name. Martinius, the learned etymologist, observes, that this mark of the grossest infamy was not unknown to the ancients, and was called by the Greeks, Αναςαύρωσις and ̓Ανασκολόπισης. His words are, "Aliquando vasaugè dicitur non de vivi hominis supplicio, sed de cadavere, aut capite, hominis, vel *Stewechius, ad Arnob. lib. VI. p. 205. + Skinner indeed offers an alternative from Cop, Apex, and the diminutive et, which is equally inadmissible. Junii Etymolog. v. Gallows. Alcmage, Orig. Franc. in v. decollati, vel alio supplicio extincti. Id fiebat ignominia causa.". So again, of 'Avacomoda, he says, "Id intelligendum est, non de supplicio, quo vita adimebatur percussori, sed de poena, quæ ei, qui jam gladio necatus erat, ignominiæ amplioris causa irrogabatur, ut ad paucas horas (nempe ad partem diei post supplicium) insuper suspenderetur, et soli atque hominum oculis exponeretur*." Of this exposition here spoken of, as intended for infamy and disgrace, we have a very remarkable and apposite instance in the case of the king of Ai, Josh. viii. 29: "And the King of Ai he hanged on a tree until even-tide; and as soon as the sun was down, Joshua commanded that they should take his carcase down from the tree," &c.; where see Bp. Patrick, as also his Comment on Numb. xxv. 4, and Deut. xxi. 22. It was for the same purpose, I presume, of reflecting shame and ignominy on delinquents, that their quarters were formerly sent, in England, unto distant cities, and their heads put up on high, at the Tower, Temple Bar, and London Bridge. But these ancient modes of treating and disgracing great criminals, for the terror of their survivors, not being the subject of the present investigation, I shall pursue them no farther, but turn to the practice of more modern times, and particularly of our own nation. Annal. Dunstap. A. D. 1223. p. 130. The King orders gibbetum grandem præparari: where the gibbet only means a gallows. Matthew Paris, A. D. 1239. p. 490. A person, ignominiose super machinam illam pænalem, quæ gibet appellatur, extra Londinum traditur suspendio. This also appears to be no more than a plain gallows. Matthew Paris, A. D. 1242, p. 584. William de Marisco, a knight, was judicially condemned, and ignominiously put to death. He was brought from the Tower" to that penal machine vulgarly called a gibbet;" and after he had breathed his last, was hung on one of the hooks [uncorum], and being taken down after he was grown stiff, was bowelled: his bowels were burnt, and his body being divided into four parts, the quarters were sent in terrorem, to four cities. This evidently answers to our hanging, drawing, and quartering, and has the intention of exhibiting a terrible spectacle to the people, just as our hanging a dead body in irons is meant to do. But it varies much, you observe, from VOL. I. * Martinii Etymolog. v. Suspendo. E e |