bour, by the day, week or year,--with and without board in Massachusetts,--the same in Ohio,-in Kentucky, and in Maryland? 2. What is the difference between the price of labour employed in agriculture and manufactories of cotton or wool? 3. The difference between free labour and slave labour, employed in manufactories in Maryland and Kentucky? UNIVERSITY INTELLIGENCE. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. Introductory Lecture on the Study of the Animal Kingdom.*-The Introductory Lecture of Dr. Robert E. Grant, Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in the University of London, is the only one of the printed lectures which has reached us. tures and demonstrations will be illustrated by an extensive series of Zoological specimens, drawings and zootomical preparations; the greater part of which are already collected and arranged. The classes, orders and genera of every division of tho Animal Kingdom will be examined, and the most useful and interesting species of each group will be selected for illus tration. After a few preliminary lectures, detailing the objects and relations of the study of Animals and explaining the technical language of the science, the Comparative Anatomy will occupy the first half of the course, and will comprehend the demonstration and description of the organs of motion, sensation, digestion, circulation, res piration, secretion and generation, in all the various tribes of the lower animals. The physio logical details and the applications of the facts to Zoology, Medicine and other sciences will accompany the demonstrations of structure: and this part of the course will conclude with observations on the mode of conducting zootomical inquiries, and on the art of making and preserv ing zootomical preparations. To Zoology will succeed the anatomical details, as all scientific arrangements of animals are founded on structure, and will be divided in to two distinct departments: the first treating of existing Animals, and the second of extinct species. Dr. Grant is already well known for his numerous zoological contributions to the different periodical works of Great Britain, and as one of the Assistant Editors of the Edinburg Philosophical Journal of Brewster. An Introductory Lecture, which consists or ought to consist of a simple statement of the plan, which the Professor is about to adopt, in the prosecution of his course, is scarcely a legitimate object of criticism. The present discourse seems The history of the existing species of the entirely to the purpose. In it the objects Animal Kingdom will comprehend the characand limits of Comparative Anatomy, or ters, classification, habits and uses of the AniZootomy, Comparative Physiology and mals belonging to the classes Mammalia, Aves, Zoology are defined. The extent and dis-Reptilia, Pisces, Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhitribution of the Animal Kingdom are briefly described, and the connexions of the study of animals with other branches of science pointed out. The various uses of animals to man are enumerated, and the pleasures and advantages derived from their study. The Lecture concludes with the following outline of the course of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology adopted in the University of London. "The course of instruction I mean to deliver on these two extensive branches of science will embrace an account of the structure, functions history, and classification of existing animals, and a description of the fossil species. The lec *An Essay on the Study of the Animal Kingdom being an Introductory Lecture delivered in the University of London, on the 28th of October, 1828, by Robt. E. Grant, M. D. &c. &c. London, 1828,-John Taylor, 800, pp. 35. peda, Annelides, Crustacea, Arachnida, Insecta, Vermes, Tuniaita, Radiata, Zoophyta, and Infusoria, commencing with the Natural history of the human species. This division of the course will be terminated with practical observations on the methods of collecting, preparing, transporting, and preserving zoological speci of Greek---of the Nature and Treatment of Diseases---of the English Language and Literature of the Hebrew Language and Literature--of the Spanish Language and Literature of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, and of the German and Northern Languages and Literature---some of which will be noticed hereafter. 9-By whom are the affairs of the Prussian church, and the establishments of education managed. 10-What is the established religion of Prus sia? 11-At what time was Bavaria erected into a Kingdom? 12-What is the present extent in square miles, and the population of Bavaria? What is the established religion? 13-From what time does the Kingdom of Saxony date its origin? State circumstances. 14-State the present division of Saxony? Name the circles and their chief towns. 15-What is the form of Government in Sax ony? 16-What does the word Netherlands literally 17-When was the independence of the seven United provinces of the Republic of Holland, acknowledged by Spain and other European powers? 18-In what year was the Batavian Rupublic established, under the authority of Fiance? State circumstances. We are glad to find, from the recent annual report of the council of that Institution, that it prospers according to their expectations. The receipts, in the year, amounted to £59,802 12s. Its expenditure, £47, 568 14s. 3d. leaving a balance on hand of £12,233 17s. 9d. The Dona-signify, and why was it given to that part of Europe now denominated the Kingdom of the tions, in the year, had amounted to £772. Netherlands? 10s. and the receipts from Students, applicable to the University, were £1902. 5s. 10d. The report calculated the annual current expenses at £55,000, which would be produced by eleven hundred students. At present there are five hundred and fifty seven, of whom one hundred belong to the Latin, seventy seven to the Greek, and ninety one to the Mathematical, class: It is not said whether these are distinct matriculates. It was calculated that the students would be three times as numerous in the next year, and four times as numerous in the year following. The number is certainly much less than we had anticipated but by the unusual activity which is exerted by the Professors, and the liberal spirit abroad, it is probable that it will be considerably augmented in future years. Public Examination.-Continued from page 16. MODERN LANGUAGES. Written examination in Modern Geography, 1-What are the boundaries of Germany, its extent and population? 2-How many members does the new Confederation of Germany consist of, and what are the separate or combined powers that compose it? 3-How is the number of votes regulated, which the several States possess in the Diet? 4-In how many classes is the whole of the Confederacy divided? 5--Give a list of the first and second classes, and their respective votes? 6-What is the derivation of the word Austria, and at what period was it first used? 7-What is the form of Government, and what is the established religion in Austria? 8-What is the present extent of the Prussian dominions, and what is the population in Prussia? 19--When was this Republic transformed into a Kingdom, and Louis Buonaparte proclaimed King thereof? When was it incorporated with ́ the French Empire? State circumstances. 20---Between what degrees of latitude and longitude is Switzerland comprised? 21-What are the boundaries, extent in square miles, and number of inhabitants of Switzerland? 22-What is the present division of Switzerland? State the cantons that form the Swiss confederacy? 23--Who was the founder of the reformed religion in Switzerland? 24-Which are the cantons where the Roman Catholic religion prevails? 25-Which are the different orders of Knighthood that originated with the Crusades? State their rise, progress and decay. NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS. &c. The letter from the anonymous author of the essay "on the North American Indians," lately published in Charleston, with its enclosures, has been received. While the Editors entirely approve the humane and liberal spirit of that essay, and coincide in many of its views, they regret that it does not comport with the plan of the Museum to publish what has appeared in other journals, except mere articles of intelligence. They may however, take an early occasion of presenting to their readers some of the author's arguments in behalf of the unfortunate aborigines of our country. § The communication of Alumnus on the "character of the North American Indians" has been received. # A communication from Washington "on the quadrature of the circle" has been received. § PUBLISHED BY F. Carr. University Press.-JAMES ALEXANDER, Printer. NADYARD COLLEGE 1929 P405. VIRGINIA LITERARY MUSEUM AND JOURNAL OF BELLES LETTRES, ARTS, &c. Published every Wednesday.-Terms, five dollars per annum, to be paid in advance. "POSCENTES VARIO MULTUM DIVERSA PALATO"-Hor. Lib. ii. Ep. 2. No. 3.-VOL. 1. UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. ON THE CAUSES OF ENDEMIC DISEASE. Alexandrum genuerit." JULY 1, 1829. all cases, but may be, and frequently are, combined for instance, there may be something improper about the locality, “Nec Hecubam, causam interitus fuisse Trojanis, quod connected with an unfavorable condition of the atmosphere, which may occasion one place to be insalubrious, whilst others "Nor was Hecuba the cause of the destruction of Troy in the immediate vicinity are entirely heal because she bare Alexander." CICERO, de Fato, 15. The recent and distressing visitation of Fever, at this University, and the various - conjectures, which have been entered into, regarding its causes, have induced us to offer a few remarks on the causes of endemic fever in general, in order that the reader may be enabled to judge of the exact degree of knowledge or ignorance of the Medical Profession, regarding this obscure point in the history of disease. The difficulties which will be found to envelope the subject, when dispassionately considered, may, moreover, have the effect of arresting those hypotheses, in which mankind are ever ready to indulge, even when utterly uninstructed, or but imperfectly informed, on a subject. The Medical Profession have adopted three terms to express their leading ideas of the causes of Fever: these must be understood before proceeding farther. Those causes, which are connected with a particular locality only, are said to be endemic; those which are seated in the atmosphere and affect a more or less considerable extent of country, unconnected with locality, are said to be epidemic; and those, which are produced by some emanation from an animal body, labouring under a similar disease, are said to be contagious-The diseases resulting from those respective causes being termed endemic, epidemic and contagious. These causes, it will be obvious, may not act singly, in thy in other words, the causes of the fever may be of an endemico-epidemic character. Whilst again, there may be a constitution of the atmosphere, favourable to the extension of a disease which is unquestionably contagious, or the causes of the disease may be of an epidemico-contagious character. The fever, which has recently prevailed at the University, seems to have been of the class of endemicoepidemics, in some instances, perhaps, contagious, although there was no positive evidence of contagion: some of the sick, it is true, when healthy, had held communication with those labouring under the disease, but by far the majority of cases occurred where no communication whatever had taken place. Of the endemic causes of fever, we have the most familiar and striking example in the marshy miasm or exhalationthe Malaria or Aria Cattiva of the Italians, which is the fertile source of insalubrity in the marshy districts of every clime, when circumstances are favourable to its evolution. Experience alone has proved to us, that in such localities particular diseases do arise; but we are in utter ignorance of the precise changes, which have occurred in the air of the place, even when the Malaria is escaping and acting with its greatest malignity. Chemical analysis has thrown no light on the subject, and our knowledge is therefore confined to the fact, that in marshy districts some terrestrial emanation does occur, which, when applied to the human body occasions dis-, Guadiana itself, and all the smaller streams ease. had, in fact, ceased to be streams, and were no more than lines of detached pools, in the courses that had formerly been rivers: and, there, the soldiers suffer By some writers on this subject it has been imagined, that vegetable, putrefaction is the cause of this subtile agent. By others, aqueous putrefaction, or animal putre-ed from remittent fevers of such destrucfaction, or different combinations of these tive malignity, "that the enemy and all have been invoked, but there is no posi- Europe believed that the British host was tive, historical, evidence, that any one or extirpated." any combination of these varieties of putrefaction does ever occasion, even in marshy districts, malarious or miasmatic disease. Many similar topographical illustrations of Spain are adduced by the same writer, of great interest, but which the limits to which this article must necessarily be restricted prevent us from laying before the 1. Vegetable Putrefaction, singly, does not give rise to Endemic Fever.-By veg-reader. From these, he remarks, "it will etable putrefaction, it may be premised, is be seen, that in the most unhealthy parts of understood the humid decay of vegetables. Spain, we may in vain, towards the close That malaria must be something more of summer, look for lakes, marshes, ditchthan vegetable decomposition is proved by es, pools, or even vegetation. Spain, many facts. It has been found, in many generally speaking, is then, though as procases, most virulent and abundant on the lific of endemic fever as Walchesen, bedriest surfaces: often where vegetation yond all doubt, one of the driest countries has never, apparently, existed, or could ex-in Europe, and it is not till it has again ist, as in the steep ravine of a dried water course. been made one of the wettest, by the periodical rains, with its vegetation and Dr. Ferguson, who had extensive and aquatic weeds restored, that it can be callmelancholy experience in this matter, du- ed healthy, or even habitable, with any ring the war in Spain, as well as in many degree of safety." p. 280. In another part parts of the British West India Islands, of his communication he observes, that and who is, moreover, a scientific observer, malaria is never found in Savannahs or has given some striking instances, in a plains, that have been flooded in the rainy paper on marsh poison, read before the season, till their surface has been thoroughRoyal Society of Edinburgh in the yearly exsiccated; vegetation burnt up; and 1820, (See Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ix.) The first time he observed any extensive epidemic intermittent, in the army, was in 1794, when after a very hot and dry summer, the British troops, in the month of August, took up the encampments of Rosendaal and Oosterhout in South Holland. The soil, in both places, was a level plain of sand, with a perfectly dry surface, where no vegetation existed or could exist, but stunted heath plants on digging, it was universally found to be percolated with water, to within a few inches of the surface, which, so far from being at all putrid, was perfectly potable in all the wells of the camp." On their advance to Talavera, the British army had to march through a very dry country, and, in the hottest weather, fought that celebrated battle which was followed by a retreat into the plains of Estremadura, along the course of the Guadiana river, at a time, when the country was so arid and dry, for want of rain, that the its putrefaction rendered as impossible as the putrefaction of an Egyptian mummy. The very period, indeed, of the year, in which malarious fevers occur, opposes the theory of this humid decay of vegetables. In summer, the plant is more succulent; all other circumstances are equally favorable to decomposition; yet it is not then that this change occurs, but in the autumnal season, when the waters have been more or less evaporated, vegetation completely dried up and putrefaction rendered almost impracticable. It may be said, that the experience of every one shews that stagnant pools, mill ponds, &c. are insalubrious-doubtless they are, but not from the cause that is here imagined: the bottom of the stagnant pool or mill-pond becomes miasmatic, and this we learn only from experience-the soil is exposed by the evaporation of the water, and in the autumnal heats, gives off the unknown, subtile and pestiferous agent. Again, to vegetable putrefaction singly, we are constantly exposed: the very grass and the decaying vegetable matter which surrounds our habitations, especially in the woods, is always undergoing more or less of decomposition. In the West India sugar ships, the drainings of the sugar, mixed with the bilge water of the hold, create a stench that is absolutely suffocating to those unaccustomed to it: yet fevers are never known to be generated from such a combination. stant prey to them. This is fortunately not the case, and the reason is obvious: the shingles of which a roof may be constructed and the additional covering of flat roofs are all deprived of their succulency, and reduced nearly to the state of lignin or woody fibre, in which, as every chemist knows, nothing like the putrefaction of the succulent vegetable can take place. But let us suppose, for an instant, that such a covering could give off malaria, how excessively small must that emanation be, at any one period, which requires a series of years for the destructive decomposition of the substance exhaling it: and if, as we have attempted to show, the rapid putrefaction of succulent vegetables is incapable of producing endemic disease, how much less active must that slow decomposition be, which has to operate upon the woody various conflicting authorities on this ob- We are aware that endemics have frequently been ascribed to this vegetable putrefaction singly: such an assigned cause is to be found in the works of Medical writers, but it is not, on this account, to be implicitly credited. It has ever been a prevalent idea, that whatever is offensive to the senses must be more or less capable of giving rise to disease. This prevalent idea, has, in the obscurity of the sub-fibre? There is not, however, amongst the ject, been adopted by the Medical Practitioner and the opinion, unsupported by any correct evidence, has been transferred from one author to another, until it has been ultimately considered canonical:Accordingly, when endemic disease ari-rious question, but one of great difficulty," ses, all eyes are directed to the vegetable says a recent writer on this subject "whethkingdom, and if a harmless heap of vegeta- er there is any difference between the reble matter be discovered, it is esteemed sults of the decomposition of different vegsufficient to account for the whole. Not etables. Few observations seem to have long ago endemic fever occurred, by been made by physicians upon this point, which a whole family was attacked and it is only by observation that we can without any assignable cause: the physi- learn any thing. It is certainly worcian, however, on looking into a cellar, thy of more attention than it has yet obfound a quantity of shingles, and this dis- tained. We have heard some strange statecovery was considered sufficient to ex- ments and ingenious speculations on this plain every thing. A more harmless occu- subject. The plants, however, which have pant could scarcely have been met with, frequently been considered as suspicious yet, being vegetable, it was held to be a are those, which grow spontaneously in satisfactory cause of the disease. rich damp soils. They may perhaps rather indicate, than produce, exclusively or in any peculiar degree, these noxious exhalations. The strong objection to this opinion, is, that in every part of the globe where climate and soil, and local circumstances favour the generation of malaria, this evil principle is felt, however dissimilar may be the productions of the vegetable kingdom, however much, not only species and genera, but even tribes and natural families may be found to differ." The above remarks have been directed, chiefly, to the putrefaction of succulent vegetables, but, from the loose mode in which the expressions of Medical writers have been worded, it has been imagined, that they implied that vegetable matter, in any form, may undergo putrefaction or decomposition, and give off exhalations, capable of inducing disease. Were this the case we should be constantly exposed, in our ordinary habitations, to additional insalubrious exhalations, and ever liable to miasmatic affections: every house, which is covered with shingles, every wooden dwelling, especially if surrounded by dead trees, and in the woods, ought to be a con 2. Animal Putrefaction, singly, does not give rise to Endemic Fever. This position does not require much argument-yet it is a matter of difficulty to convince the world, that what is offensive |