with a flourish of trumpets, and repudiated the next. By some misadventure names got a little mixed and "salor" became a joke for the week. The section Inoloma, and those which follow, are not glutinous, either in cap or stem, but either silky or scaly. The most attractive of its species, C. violacens, was not found. but C. albo-violaceus was present in two forms; C. Bulliardi, with its brick-red stem was collected in Haywood Forest, and C. pholideus was one of the commonest species in the first day's excursion. The fourth section is Dermocybe with a smooth cap and stem. Of these C. ochroleucus was one of the most plentiful. C. caninus was discussed more than once, as was also C. anomalus, and both were doubtless represented, although some uncertainty still prevails whether all the specimens called by these names were fully entitled to them. Of the bright coloured species there was one solitary C. miltinus, a few C. sanguineus, and a pile of C. cinnamomeus of variable forms, sizes, and tinting. In this section C. infucatus was found for the first time in Britain, in Haywood Forest. The fifth section is named Telamonia, characterised more or less distinctly by a double veil. The species found were C. bulbosus, not uncommon; C. torvus, in considerable quantity, though small in size; a single and perhaps doubtful specimen of C. scutulatus; almost an unlimited quantity of C. armillatus, with red bands round the stem; C. hinnuleus in profusion, and of all sizes; and the pretty little C. paleaceus, with its pileus silky with minute white hairs. The last section is Hydrocybe, and most of the species are small. C. subferrugineus was not uncommon in Haywood Forest. The shining chestnut coloured C. castaneus, which has the reputation of being edible, if only a sufficient quantity for a meal can be found, but only very few were seen. To these must be added C. erythrinus, in two or three places; C. decipiens, not uncommon; and two or three other species not yet accurately determined. From the above enumeration it will be evident that the genus in all its sections was unusually well represented, and as it is allowed to be one of the most critical and difficult of the genera of gill-bearing fungi, there was plenty of occupation in discussing equivocal forms. A new "crux" was constantly on hand awaiting its turn. In the course of this report the most important species have been mentioned which were found during the week, except perhaps Hygrophorus calyptræformis, with its conical amethystine cap. Hygrophorus cossus, with an odour resembling that of the caterpillar of the cossus or goat-moth. Russula drimeia, an acrid purple species, with persistently sulphur-coloured gills, only found previously in Black Park, Berks. Agaricus laxipes, a small species, with dark velvety stem, found only previously at Holme Lacy. Visitors also brought for exhibition Sparassis crispa, excellent for the table; Agaricus sarcocephalus, from Bristol; Agaricus (armillaria) constrictus, from Epping; and others of less interest. There can be no doubt that, although the present year has proved somewhat better than the last, it is in most localities a very unproductive one for fungi. Since the sharp winter of two or three years ago the number of fungi developed have been very much diminished. This is not an individual opinion, but one in which all persons present at the above forays concurred. Let us hope, like the farmers, for better luck next year.-M. C. C., Gardeners' Chronicle, Oct. 13, 1883. FISH-CULTURE, AS PRACTISED BY THE ANCIENTS. By the Rev. Wм. HOUGHTON, F.L.S.-Read October 4th, 1883. ARTIFICIAL pieces of water for the preservation of fish are ancient inventions; ponds with living fishes are exhihited in some pictorial relics of ancient Egypt. The Assyrians also had ponds or stews for fish in their ornamental gardens. Fish were kept in the vivaria, as they were termed, for two purposes, namely, as sacred pets, or as food for the table. Varro speaking of certain Lydian fishes, held sacred, says with a pun, "that no cook ever dares to summon them-to sauce! jus is a Latin word, which means both "law" and "fish-sauce." Ælian speaks of certain sacred fish which were dedicated to Jupiter which even poachers would seldom dare to catch. Here is Martial's warning to any fisherman meditating a day's angling in the Baian lake, whose fish were sacred to Domitian "From the Baian Lake with awe Angler, I advise, withdraw : Hand whose greater cannot wave, Or to sacrifice or save, Names respective know they all Once a Lybian rued the deed When he play'd the trembling reed. Epigram iv. 30. Fish were sometimes used in augury, as we learn from Ælian (Nat. Anim. viii., 5), who speaks of men who prophesied from fish in a certain town in Lycia. Whether the Greeks kept fish in vivaria or not there is no definite information, so far as I know; but there is distinct notice that the people of Agrigentum, in Sicily, constructed a fish-pond of great size and depth: it was about a mile in circumference, and twenty cubits in depth. Water was brought into this reservoir from rivers and fountains, and various kinds of fish-but no mention is made of the kinds-were kept in it, both for amusement and pleasure. Numbers of swans swam about on the water, which gave a pleasant prospect to the eye. In time, however, the pond was allowed to fill up with mud, till at last it became dry ground. Diodorus Siculus (xi. 25) is the authority for this fact. But the most remarkable thing connected with fish-preservation is that which Athenæus records in the 40th chapter of the 5th Book of the Deipnosophists. Hiero, king of the Syracusans, ordered an enormous ship to be built, under the superintendence of Archimedes : Great she was intended for the transport of corn. At first Hiero called this ship the "Syracusan," but he afterwards altered its name to the "Alexandrian." Trees from mount Etna were felled in sufficient numbers to build 60 triremes. numbers of woodmen were employed; and 300 carpenters were day and night at work. The vessel was launched by Archimedes; she was a three-decker, with 20 rows of rowers. The floors of the rooms were mosaics, exhibiting the whole story of the Iliad "in a marvellous manner. The ceilings, doors, and furniture were all finished in a remarkable manner. She was furnished with a gymnasium and walks; artificial gardens of great beauty, enriched with all sorts of plants, and shaded by roofs of lead or tiles, were a prominent feature; there was a trelissed vineyard and avenue of trees to shade the walks on deck; an aphrodisium, or temple devoted to Venus, inlaid with Silician agates and panels of cypress; an academic saloon, a library, a bath-room, beautifully variegated with marble, ten stalls for horses, and rooms for grooms, harness, and accoutrements. To state no further particulars of this remarkable vessel, it will be enough to say that near the bows was a large reservoir containing 2000 measures of water, made of wood closely compacted with pitch and canvas; next to this cistern there was a large water-tight well for fish, constructed of beams and lead; this was kept full of sea water, and great numbers of fish were kept in it. Our chief information however, concerning ancient vivaria is derived from the writers on Roman husbandry (Scriptores de Re Rustica), as Columella and Varro, from whom much curious information of a useful and practical kind may be derived, and which may be profitably read by modern pisciculturists. I will give a translation of what Columella, who treats the matter more copiously than Varro, has handed down to us; you will then be able to gather some good general idea of pisciculture as it was practised by the ancient Romans. You will see that fish-culture was pursued not only for the sake of amusement, as sometimes erroneously asserted, but for the sake of profit. True it is, that in the days of the later Roman Empire fish-culture had lapsed into a luxurious and most expensive amusement; but from the beginning it was not so. The Romans were well aware of the importance of fish-culture in an economic point of view; and though they were entirely ignorant of the art of the artificial fecundation of fish, they well knew the desirability of stocking both fresh water and sea water ponds with such fishes as experience had taught them would thrive therein respectively. Columella writes as follows: "Since I have spoken of aquatic animals,"--he had been discoursing on ducks, geese, water-fowl-aviaries, &c.-"it is not inopportune to speak of the cultivation of fishes; and although one would think a digression on this subject quite foreign to the agriculturist,—for what is more opposed than earth and water?— still, I shall not pass the matter over, for our ancestors have rendered the study even of these things celebrated, to such an extent as to have confined sea-fishes in fresh water, and to have bestowed the same care in feeding the grey-mullet and the scarus, as they now bestow on the muræna and basse. For that rural offspring of Romulus and Remus considered it a great matter, that, if country life was to be put into comparison with town life, it should be in no respect deficient in resources; wherefore they stocked not only the ponds which they had constructed, but even filled natural fresh water lakes with produce brought from the sea. Thus the river Velinus, the lakes Sebatinus,* Volsineusis,† and Ciminius, nourished basse and guilt-heads and other kinds of sea-fish tolerant of fresh water. Later on a succeeding age abolished that kind of fish-cultivation, and the luxury of the rich made enclosures round the seas and Neptune himself, so that even at that time, in the memory of our grandfathers, a certain deed and saying of M. Philippus, a very luxurious man, were talked about as being exceedingly witty. For this man, when by chance he was supping as a guest at the house of Casinus, and when he had tasted basse from a neighbouring stream which had been placed before him, spit the piece out of his mouth, following up his impudent act by the expression, 'May I die, if I did not think it fish that had been placed before me.' This false oath therefore made many men's throats more dainty, and taught educated palates to disdain a river basse unless it was one that had swum in the strong current of the Tiber. This led Terentius Varro to say that there is not a single low fellow who does not say that you might as well stock your vivaria with frogs as with fishes of this kind. "But still, in those days in which Varro has made mention of this luxury, the severity of Cato was especially praised; and yet he nevertheless, the tutor of Lucullus, sold the fish-ponds of his ward for the large sum of 400,000 sesterces. For at that time, cook-shop dainties (delicia popinales) were in high request, when vivaria, to which men were excessively devoted, were brought down to the sea, just as before that time Numantinus § and Isauricus || (heroes) of conquered nations, also Licinius Muræna and Sergius Orata, rejoiced in names derived from their captive fishes. But since in this way manners became hardened, we indeed, lest we should appear to be fierce reprovers of so many past ages, and in order that these matters should be regarded not as common things, but as especially honourable and praiseworthy, will show that this country house business is even a gain to the family. For he who has bought either islands or land adjacent to the sea, and who is unable from the poverty of the soil generally prevalent near the sea to derive therefrom the fruits of the earth, may make his profit from the sea. "Now the very first thing to consider is the nature of the locality in which you may have resolved to make your fish-ponds, for all kinds of fish cannot be had from all shores. A muddy region suits the flat fishes, as the sole, turbot, and brill; the same does for various kinds of shell fish. Sandy streams feed flat fishes fairly well, but they are better for guilt-heads, and sea-bream whether Carthagenian or native, and for umbræ; they are not good for shell-fish. Again, a rocky sea nourishes rock-fishes, such as dwell among rocks, and are therefore so called (saxatiles) as the merula and the turdi (wrasse?) and the melanuri. We ought * Lago di Bracciano in Etruria. Now Lago di Bolsena. Lago di Vico. § Numantinus, i.e., Scipio Africanus the younger, who received this surname from his cap. ture of the city of Numantia in Spain, B.C. 133. Isauricus, i.e., L. Servilius, so surnamed from his victory over the Isauroi, daring robbers of Asia Minor, B.C. 75. also to take into account the difference of the seas as well as of the shores, in order that fish brought from foreign places may not disappoint us; for every fish cannot live in every sea, as for instance the helops which is nourished only in the Pamphylian sea, the dory (faber), accounted as one of the best fish in our municipality of Gades, and which according to old custom is called zëus; the scarus, which is most abundant on all the shores of Asia Minor and Greece as far as Sicily, but never swims out to the Spanish sea. Therefore if they are caught and brought to our vivaria, they cannot be kept long. Of the valuable kinds, the muræna alone, although indigenous in the Tartesian sea and in the Carpathian sea, which is its most distant habitat, is able to live in any sea. But let us now discourse about the site of fish-ponds."-Columella viii., 16. "We judge a pond to be far the best which is so situated that each following wave of the sea removes the one before it, and does not suffer the old one to remain within the enclosure; for this is very similar to the sea which is constantly agitated by the wind and is unable to become warm, since the cold sea rolls up from the depth the cold wave to the upper portion. A pond is either cut out of a rock -but there is very seldom a favourable opportunity for this, -or is constructed on the shore by means of masonry. But in whatever way it is made it ought to have a hollow cavity near the bottom, if it is always to be cold with the influx of the rushing water; some cavities should be simple and straight whither the scaly shoal may retire, others should be bent in the form of a snail-shell, sufficiently capacious, in which the murenæ may take shelter, although some persons do not like to mix these fish with others of a different kind, because if they are harass ed with rabies similar to that which occur in dogs, they savagely persecute the fishy shoals and kill many by biting them. Passages should be made on every side of the piscina, if the nature of the place permit it, for thus the old water is more easily removed, when an exit for the water is open opposite to its entrance. These passages we think should be made near the bottom of the enclosure, if the situation of the place allow it, so that the plummet line placed in the bottom of the piscina should show a depth of seven feet of water above; for this measurement for the fishes of the pond is quite sufficient; and there can be no doubt that the more the water comes from the bottom of the sea, so much the colder it is; a condition which is most suitable for the swimming fishes. But if the spot which we have thought suitable for a vivarium is on a level with the water of the sea, the piscina is to be dug out to a depth of nine feet, and within two feet from the top streams of water are to be brought by channels, and care must be taken that these streams come in very copiously, since the quantity of water (in the pond) which lies below the level of the sea, is driven out just as if a fresh rush of sea-water had gained admittance. Many people are of opinion that, in ponds of the nature just mentioned, long and tortuous recesses should be made for the fishes in the sides of the cavity, as dark retreats for them. But if fresh -sea water is not continually running through the pond; to do this is injurious; for reservoirs of this kind do not readily admit fresh supplies of water, and with difficulty get rid of the old; and stinking water is more injurious than darkness is beneficial. Nevertheless, little holes should be hollowed out of the walls to |