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cating of happiness; humanity is concerned in the removal of evil. Benevolence is common to the Creator and his creatures; it differs only in degree; the former has the knowledge and power as well as the will to do good; man often has the will to do good without having the power to carry it into effect; I have heard say, that Pope Clement XI. never passes through the people, who always kneel in crowds and ask his benediction, but the tears are seen to flow from his eyes. This must proceed from an imagination that he is the father of all these people, and that he is touched with so extensive a benevolence, that it breaks out into a passion of tears.' STEELE. Benignity is ascribed to the stars, to heaven, or to princes; ignorant and superstitious people are apt to ascribe their good fortune to the benign influence of the stars rather than to the gracious dispensations of Providence; A constant benignity in commerce with the rest of the world, which ought to run through all a man's actions, has effects more useful to those whom you oblige, and is less ostentatious in yourself.' STEELE. Humanity belongs to man only; it is his peculiar characteristic, and ought at all times to be his boast; when he throws off this, his distinguishing badge, he loses every thing valuable in him; it is a virtue that is indispensable in his present suffering condition: humanity is as universal in its application as benevolence; wherever there is distress, humanity flies to its relief; humanity is, however, not merely an attribute of man; it is also the peculiar feeling for one's fellow creatures which exists in some men in a greater degree than in others; The greatest wits I have conversed with are men eminent for their humanity.' ADDISON. Kindness and tenderness are partial modes of affection, confined to those who know or are related to each other: we are kind to friends and acquaintances, tender towards those who are near and dear: kindness is a mode of affection most fitted for social beings; it is what every one can show, and every one is pleased to receive; Beneficence, would the followers of Epicurus say, is all founded in weakness; and whatever be pretended, the kindness that passeth between men and men is by every man directed to himself. This it must be confessed is of a piece with that hopeful philosophy which, having patched man up out of the four elements, attributes his being to chance.' GROVE. Tenderness is a state of feeling that is sometimes praiseworthy: the young and the weak demand tenderness from those who stand in the closest connexion with them, but this feeling may be carried to an excess so as to injure the object on which it is fixed; Dependance is a perpetual call upon humanity, and a greater incitement to tenderness and pity than any other motive whatsoever.' ADDISON.

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There are no circumstances or situation in life which preclude the exercise of benevolence: next to the pleasure of making others happy, the benevolent man rejoices in seeing them so: the benign influence of a benevolent monarch extends to the remotest corner of his dominions: benignity is a becoming attribute for

a prince, when it does not lead him to sanction vice by its impunity; it is highly to be applauded in him as far as it renders him forgiving of minor offences, gracious to all who are deserving of his favours, and ready to afford a gratification to all whom it is in his power to serve: the multiplied misfortunes to which all men are exposed afford ample scope for the exercise of humanity, which, in consequence of the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and talent, is peculiar to no situation of life; even the profession of arms does not exclude humanity from the breasts of its followers; and when we observe men's habits of thinking in various situations, we may remark that the soldier, with arms by his side, is commonly more humane than the partisan with arms in his hands. Kindness is always an amiable feeling, and in a grateful mind always begets kindness; but it is sometimes ill bestowed upon selfish people who requite it by making fresh exactions: tenderness is frequently little better than an amiable weakness, when directed to a wrong end, and fixed on an improper object; the false tenderness of parents has often been the ruin of children.

BENEFIT, FAVOR, KINDNESS, CIVILITY.

Benefit signifies here that which benefits; favor, in French faveur, Latin favor and faveo to bear good will, signifies the act flowing from good will; kindness signifies an action that is kind; civility, that which is civil (v. Civil).

The idea of an action gratuitously performed for the advantage of another is common to these terms. Benefits and favors are granted by superiors; kindnesses and civilities pass between equals.

Benefits serve to relieve actual wants: the power of conferring and the necessity of receiving them constitute the relative difference in station between the giver and the receiver: favors tend to promote the interest or convenience: the power of giving and the advantage of receiving are dependant on local circumstances, more than on difference of station. Kindnesses and civilities serve to afford mutual accommodation by a reciprocity of kind offices on the many and various occasions which offer in human life: they are not so important as either benefits or favors, but they carry a charm with them which is not possessed by the former. Kindnesses are more endearing than civilities, and pass mostly between those who are known to each other: civilities may pass between strangers.

Dependance affords an opportunity for conferring benefits; partiality gives rise to favors: kindnesses are the result of personal regard; civilities, of general benevolence. benevolence. A master confers his benefits on such of his domestics as are entitled to encouragement for their fidelity. Men in power distribute their favors so as to increase their influence. Friends, in their intercourse with each other, are perpetually called upon to perform kindnesses for each other. There is no man so mean that he may not have it in his power to show civilities to those who are above him.

Benefits tend to draw those closer to each other who by station in life are set at the greatest distance from each other: affection is engendered in him who benefits; and devoted attachment in him who is benefited; I think I have a right to conclude that there is such a thing as generosity in the world. Though if I were under a mistake in this, I should say as Cicero in relation to the immortality of the soul, I willingly err; for the contrary notion naturally teaches people to be ungrateful by possessing them with a persuasion concerning their benefactors, that they have no regard to them in the benefits they bestow.' GROVE. Favors increase obligation beyond its due limits; if they are not asked and granted with discretion, they may produce servility on the one hand, and haughtiness on the other; A favour well bestowed is almost as great an honour to him who confers it, as to him who receives it. What, indeed, makes for the superior reputation of the patron in this case is, that he is always surrounded with specious pretences of unworthy candidates.' STEELE. Kindnesses are the offspring and parent of affection; they convert our multiplied wants into so many enjoyments; Ingratitude is too base to return a kindness, and too proud to regard it.' SOUTH. Civilities are the sweets which we gather in the way as we pass along the journey of life: A common civility to an impertinent fellow often draws upon one a great many unforeseen troubles.' STEELE.

BENEFIT, SERVICE, GOOD OFFICE.

These terms, like the former (v. Benefit, favor), agree in denoting some action performed for the good of another, but they differ in the principle on which the action is performed.

A benefit (v. Benefit, favor) is perfectly gratuitous, it produces an obligation: a service (v. Advantage) is not altogether gratuitous; it is that at least which may be expected, though it cannot be demanded: a good office is between the two; it is in part gratuitous, and in part such as one may reasonably expect.

Benefits flow from superiors, and services from inferiors or equals; but good offices are performed by equals only. Princes confer benefits on their subjects; subjects perform services for their princes: neighbours do good offices for each other. Benefits are sometimes the reward of services: good offices produce a return

from the receiver.

Benefits consist of such things as serve to relieve the difficulties, or advance the interests, of the re

ceiver: services consist in those acts which tend to lessen the trouble, or increase the ease and convenience of the person served: good offices consist in the employ of one's credit, influence, and mediation for the advantage of another: it is a species of voluntary service.

Humanity leads to benefits; the zeal of devotion or friendship renders services; general good-will dictates good offices.

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It is a great benefit to assist an embarrassed tradesman out of his difficulty; I have often pleased myself with considering the two kinds of benefits which accrue to the public from these my speculations, and which, were I to speak after the manner of logicians, I should distinguish into the material and formal.' ADDISON. It is a great service for a soldier to save the life of his commander, or for a friend to open the eyes of another to see his danger; Cicero, whose learning and services to his country are so well known, was inflamed by a passion for glory to an extravagant degree.' HUGHES. It is a good office for any one to interpose his mediation to settle disputes, and heal divisions; There are several persons who have many pleasures and entertainments in their possession which they do not enjoy. It is therefore a kind and good office to acquaint them with their own happiness.' STEELE.

It is possible to be loaded with benefits so as to affect one's independence of character. Services are sometimes a source of dissatisfaction and disappointment when they do not meet with the remuneration or return which they are supposed to deserve. Good offices tend to nothing but the increase of good will. Those who perform them are too independent to expect a return, and those who receive them are too sensible of their value not to seek an opportunity of making a return.

TO OFFER, BID, TENDER, PROPOSE.

Offer signifies the same as before (v. Tooffer, exhibit); bid, in Saxon besdan, bidden to offer, old German buden, low German bedan, high German bieten, &c. comes in all probability from the Latin vito and invito, from in and viam, signifying to call into the way of measure of another; tender, like the word tend, from tendo to stretch, signifies to stretch forth by way of offering; propose, in Latin proposui, perfect of place or set before, likewise characterizes a mode of offering.

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Offer is employed for that which is literally transferable, or for that which is indirectly communicable: bid and tender belong to offer in the first sense; propose belongs to offer in the latter sense. To offer is a voluntary and discretionary act; the offer may be accepted or rejected at pleasure; to bid and tender are specific modes of offering which depend on circumstances: one bids with the hope of its being accepted; one tenders from a prudential motive, and in order to serve specific purposes. We offer money to a poor person, it is an act of charity or good nature; or we offer a reward by way of inducing another to do a thing, which is an act of discretion;

Nor should thou offer all thy little store,
Will rich Iolas yield but offer more. DRYDEN.
Should all these offers for my friendship call,
'Tis he that offers, and I scorn them all. POPE.

We bid a price for the purchase of a house, it is a commercial dealing subject to the rules of commerce; To give interest a share in friendship, is to sell it by inch of candle; he that bids most shall have it; and when it is mercenary, there is no depending upon it.' COLLIER. We tender a sum of money by way of payment, it is a matter of prudence in order to fulfil an obligation; Aulus Gellius tells a story of one Lucius Neratius who made it his diversion to give a blow to whomsoever he pleased, and then tender them the legal forfeiture.' BLACKSTONE. By the same rule one offers a person the use of one's horse; one bids a sum at an auction; one tenders one's services to the government.

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To offer and propose are both employed in matters of practice or speculation; but the former is a less definite and decisive act than the latter; we offer an opinion by way of promoting a discussion; we propose a plan for the deliberation of others. Sentiments which differ widely from those of the major part of the present company ought to be offered with modesty and caution; Our author offers no reason.' LOCKE. We should not propose to another what we should be unwilling to do ourselves; We propose measures for securing to the young the possession of pleasure (by connecting with it religion). BLAIR. We commonly offer by way of obliging; we commonly propose by way of arranging or accommodating. It is an act of puerility to offer to do more than one is enabled to perform; it does not evince a sincere disposition for peace to propose such terms as we know cannot be accepted; Upon the proposal of an agreeable object, a man's choice will rather incline him to accept than refuse it.' SOUTH.

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TO INVEST, ENDUE OR ENDOW.

To invest, from vestio, signifies to clothe with any thing; endue or endow, from the Latin induo, signifies to put on any thing. One is invested with that which is external: one is endued with that which is internal. We invest a person with an office or a dignity one endues a person with good qualities. The investment is a real external action; but endue may be merely fictitious or mental. The king is invested with supreme authority; A strict and efficacious constitution, indeed, which invests the church with no power at all, but where men will be so civil as to obey it.' SOUTH. A lover endues his mistress with every earthly perfection; As in the natural body, the eye does not speak, nor the tongue see; so neither in the spiritual, is every one endued also with the gift and spirit of government.' SOUTH. Endow is but a variation of endue, and yet it seems to have acquired a distinct office: we may say that a person is endued or endowed with a good understanding; but as an act of the imagination endow is not to be substituted for endue: for we do not say that it endows but endues things with properties.

TO CONFER, BESTOW. Confer, in French conferer, Latin confero, compounded of con and fero, signifies to bring something towards a person, or place it upon him, in which sense it is allied to bestow (v. To give, grant).

Conferring is an act of authority; bestowing that of charity or generosity. Princes and men in power confer; people in a private station bestow. Honors, dignities, privileges, and rank, are the things conferred; The conferring this honour upon him, would increase the credit he had.' CLARENDON. Favors, kindnesses, and pecuniary relief, are the things bestowed; You always exceed expectations as if yours was not your own, but to bestow on wanting merit." DRYDEN.

Merit, favor, interest, caprice, or intrigue, give rise to conferring; necessity, solicitation, and private affection, lead to bestowing. affection, lead to bestowing. England affords more than one instance in which the highest honors of the state have been conferred on persons of distinguished merit, though not of elevated birth: it is the characteristic of Christianity, that it inspires its followers with a desire of bestowing their goods on the poor and

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To minister, from the noun minister, in the sense of a servant, signifies to act in subservience to another, either in a good, bad, or indifferent sense: we minister to the caprices and indulgences of another when we encourage them unnecessarily; or, we minister to one who is entitled to our services; administer is taken in the good sense of serving another to his advantage thus the good Samaritan administered to the comfort of the man who had fallen among thieves; contribute, from the Latin contribuo, or con and tribuo to bestow, signifying to bestow for the same end, or for some particular purpose, is taken in either a good or bad sense; we may contribute to the relief of the indigent, or we may contribute to the follies and vices of others.

It is the part of the Christian minister to minister to the spiritual wants of the flock entrusted to his charge; Those good men who take such pleasure in relieving the miserable for Christ's sake, would not have been less forward to minister unto Christ himself.' ATTERBURY. It is the part of every Christ

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ian to administer, as far as lies in his power, comfort to those who are in want, consolation to the afflicted, advice to those who ask for it, and require it; help to those who are feeble, and support to those who cannot uphold themselves. On the same ground we speak of grace or spiritual gifts being administered; By the universal administration of grace, begun by our blessed Saviour, enlarged by his Apostles, carried on by their immediate successors, and to be compleated by the rest to the world's end; all types that darkened this faith are enlightened.' SPRATT. is the part of all who are in high stations to contribute to the dissemination of religion and morality among their dependants; but there are, on the contrary, many who contribute to the spread of immorality, and a contempt of all sacred things, by the most pernicious example of irreligion in themselves; 'Parents owe their children not only material subsistence for their body, but much more spiritual contributions for their mind.' DIGBY. As expressing the act of unconscious agents, they bear a similar distinction; He flings the pregnant ashes through the air, And speaks a mighty prayer.

Both which the minist'ring winds around all Egypt
bear. COWLEY.

Thus do our eyes, as do all common mirrors,
Successively reflect succeeding images;

Not what they would, but must! a star or toad,
Just as the hand of chance administers.

CONGREVE.

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Nothing conduces more to the well-being of any community than a spirit of subordination among all ranks and classes; It is to be allowed that doing all honour to the superiority of heroes above the rest of mankind, must needs conduce to the glory and advantage of a nation.' STEELE. A want of firmness and vigilance in the government or magistrates contributes greatly to the spread of disaffection and rebellion;

The true choice of our diet, and our companions at it, seems to consist in that which contributes most to cheerfulness and refreshment.' FULLER.

Schemes of ambition never conduce to tranquillity of mind. A single failure may contribute sometimes to involve a person in perpetual trouble.

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Tax is the most general of these terms, and applies to or implies whatever is paid by the people to the government, according to a certain estimate: the customs are a species of tax which are less specific than other taxes, being regulated by custom rather than any definite law; the customs apply particularly to what was customarily given by merchants for the goods which they imported from abroad: the duty is a species of tax more positive and binding than the custom, being a specific estimate of what is due upon goods, according to their value; hence it is not only applied to goods that are imported, but also to many other articles of inland produce: toll is that species of tar which serves for the repair of roads and havens.

The preceding terms refer to that which is levied by authority on the people; but they do not directly express the idea of levying or paying: impost, on the contrary, signifies literally that which is imposed; and tribute that which is paid or yielded: the former, therefore, exclude that idea of coercion which is included in the latter. The tax is levied by the consent of many; the impost is imposed by the will of one; and the tribute is paid at the demand of one or a few : the tax serves for the support of the nation; the impost and the tribute serve to enrich a government. Conquerors lay heavy imposts upon the conquered countries; distant provinces pay a tribute to the princes to whom they owe allegiance. Contribution signifies the tribute of many in unison, or for the same end; in this general sense it includes all the other terms; for taxes and imposts are alike paid by many for the same purpose; but as the predominant idea in contribution is that of common consent, it supposes a degree of freedom in the agent which is incompatible with the exercise of authority expressed by the other terms: hence the term is with more propriety applied to those cases in which men voluntarily unite in giving towards any particular object; as charitable contributions, or contributions in support of a war; but it may be taken in the general sense of a forced payment, as in speaking of military contribu

TAX, RATE, ASSESSMENT.

Tax, agreeably to the above explanation (v. Tax), and rate, from the Latin ratus and reor to think or estimate, both derive their principal meaning from the valuation or proportion according to which any sum is

demanded from the people; but the tax is imposed directly by the government for public purposes, as the land tax, the window tax, and the like; and the rate is imposed indirectly for the local purposes of each parish, as the church rates, the poor rates, and the like. The tax or rate is a general rule or ratio, by which a certain sum is raised upon a given number of persons; the assessment is the application of that rule to the individual.

The house-duty is a tax upon houses, according to their real or supposed value; the poor's rate is a rate laid on the individual likewise, according to the value of his house, or the supposed rent which he pays; the assessment in both these, is the valuation of the house, which determines the sum to be paid by each individual: it is the business of the minister to make the tax; of the parish officers to make the rate; of the commissioners or assessors to make the assessment; the former has the public to consider; the latter the individual. An equitable tax must not bear harder upon one class of the community than another: an equitable assessment must not bear harder inhabitant than another.

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TO ALLOT, ASSIGN, APPORTION,

DISTRIBUTE.

Allot is compounded of the Latin al or ad and the word lot, which owes its origin to the Saxon and other northern languages. It signifies literally to set apart as a particular lot; assign, in French assigner, Latin assigno, is compounded of as or ad and signo to sign, or mark to, or for, signifying to mark out for any one; apportion is compounded of ap or ad and portion, signifying to portion out for a certain purpose; distribute, in Latin distributus, participle of dis and tribuo, signifies to bestow or portion out to several.

To allot is to dispose on the ground of utility for the sake of good order; to assign is to communicate according to the merit of the object; to apportion is to regulate according to the due proportion; to distribute is to give in several distinct portions.

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A portion of one's property is allotted to charitable purposes, or a portion of one's time to religious meditation; Every one that has been long dead, has a due proportion of praise allotted him, in which, whilst he lived, his friends were too profuse, and his enemies too sparing. ADDISON. A prize is assigned to the A prize is assigned to the most meritorious, or an honorable post to those whose abilities entitle them to distinction; I find by several hints in ancient authors, that when the Romans were in the height of power and luxury they assigned out of their vast dominions an island called Anticyra, as an habitation for madmen.' STEELE. A person's business is apportioned to the time and abilities he has for performing it; Of the happiness and misery of our present condition, part is distributed by nature, and part is in a great measure apportioned by ourselves.'

JOHNSON. A person's alms ought to be distributed among those who are most indigent;

From thence the cup of mortal man he fills, Blessings to these, to those distributes ills. POPE. When any complicated undertaking is to be performed by a number of individuals, it is necessary to allot to each his distinct task. It is the part of a wise prince to assign the highest offices to the most worthy, and to apportion to every one of his ministers an employment suited to his peculiar character and qualifications: the business of the state thus distributed will proceed with regularity and exactitude.

TO ALLOT, APPOINT, DESTINE. To allot is taken in a similar sense as in the preceding article; appoint, in French appointer, Latin appono, that is, ap or ad and pono to place, signifies to put in a particular place, or in a particular manner; destine, in Latin destino, compounded of de and stino, sto or sisto, signifies to place apart.

Allot is used only for things, appoint and destine for persons or things. A space of ground is allotted for cultivation; a person is appointed as steward or governor; a youth is destined for a particular profession. Allotments are mostly made in the time past or present; they are made for a special purpose, and according to a given design, whence we may speak of the allotments of Providence; It is unworthy a reasonable being to spend any of the little time allotted us without some tendency, direct or oblique, to the end of our existence.' JOHNSON. Appointments respect either the present or the future; they mostly regard matters of human prudence; Having notified to my good friend, Sir Roger, that I should set out for London the next day, his horses were ready at the appointed hour.' STEELE. Destinations always respect some distant purposes, and include preparatory measures; they may be either the work of God or man; Look round and survey the various beauties of the globe, which Heaven has destined for man, and consider whether a world thus exquisitely framed could be meant for the abode of misery and pain.' JOHNSON. A conscientious man allots a portion of his annual income to the relief of the poor: when public meetings are held it is necessary to appoint a particular day for the purpose: our plans in life are defeated by a thousand contingencies: the man who builds a house is not certain he will live to use it for the purpose for which it was destined.

DESTINY, FATE, LOT, DOOM.

Destiny, from destine (v. To appoint) signifies either the power that destines, or the thing destined; fate, in Latin fatum, participle of for to speak or decree, signifies that which is decreed, or the power

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