All his

"It is striking how history, when resting on the | Napoleon's also, and the conquest of the sememory of men, always touches the bounds of my-pulchre, all attracted his momentary fathology. The delineations of character become more sharp and vigorous; they approach in some vouritism; but none assumed any thing like respects to an ideal which the imagination can lay that fixity of arrangement that is necessary hold of; events are painted in a more marked and to carry out magnificent ideas. distinct manner; accessory circumstances and causes reign had the character on it which the peoare forgotten or neglected. By such a process alone do the demands of the fancy appear capable of ple affixed to his death, which, as it occurred being satisfied. At a later period comes the scholar, during a violent storm, was reported to be who wonders how such false notions could ever caused by the close of a compact with Satan. have been embraced, does his best to uproot errors, And in that storm it was believed the spirit and at last finds out that this task is not so easy of the pope vanished with his familiar. His The reason may be convinced, but the imagination is not to be subdued."-Vol. iii. p. 122, App. sudden rise, wavering character, suspicious orthodoxy, all gave occasion for these reports which clearly showed he did not, ac

of sanctity. His heart appears to have been with the heretics, Elizabeth and Henry, and we suspect his secret convictions, though his position prevented their development. Guise he could not but support, and his character contained in it grand and noble elements, which this pope well appreciated. Henry III., between Guise, Sixtus, Catherine de Medicis and the Romanists and Navarre, and the Protestants, was like the poor cat in the adage, "Letting I dare not wait upon I would." When he ceased to fool himself of his fair purpose, and adopted, like Macbeth, a foul one, by the murder of Guise, his position was rather worse than better.

A spirit was excited against him which terminated in his murder by Clement,-marking the dreadful fanatic tendency of the age.

The first great effort of Sixtus was to suppress the banditti, and though all his mea-cording to popular notions, die in the odour sures do not merit commendation in this matter, yet his determination to subdue them was, we admit, carried out vigorously and admirably realized its end. He instituted manufactures of various kinds, planted the mulberry extensively to encourage the silk trade, added eight new congregations to those existing in the College of Cardinals, some of which it is a great pity (the Inquisition for example) that he did not abolish. He fixed the number of cardinals at seventy. He raised three millions of gold scudi in as many years. The Acqua Felice was by him carried into Rome. But, alas! in his zeal for fine modern buildings, he destroyed, we fear, numerous ancient edifices, particularly the Septizonium of Severus. The tomb of Cæcilia Metella would have followed the same fate, but for the remon- Sixtus ascribed the death of Henry to the strances of Cardinal Colonna. The Sclavo- hand of God, "It is only to the hand of God," nian blood from which he descended was says the Spanish ambassador to Philip, "that anti-Roman. Of the very statues with this fortunate event is to be ascribed." Maxi. which the citizens of Rome had adorned the milian of Bavaria (but when was there a king capitol Jupiter Tonans, between Apollo and of Bavaria that was not Jesuit-ridden down Minerva, he suffered simply the Minerva to to the present Solomon ?), expresses his joy remain, with a huge cross in the place of her in a letter to his mother, that the king of spear, to convey an image of the genius of France was killed." Christendom. He capped the pillars of The murderer, Clement, a Dominican Trajan and Antonius with statues of St. monk, was viewed at Paris as a saint and Paul and St. Peter, and they remain in their martyr. His image was placed upon the aerial elevation to this day. The obelisk in front of St. Peter's was raised by him on its present site. The cupola of St. Peter's was also his work. He offered to furnish money, provided he lived to see it realized as a whole; and he did so, with the exception of the leaden covering, in two and twenty months. His taste was questionable, his zeal for what he deemed improvements beyond question. But his life was filled with the strangest schemes conceivable, all which led doubtless to the issue, that with his mighty powers and the circumstances of the period favouring strongly the spread of Romanism, he did not very perceptibly promote her sway. His schemes for subduing Turkey, Egypt, cutting a canal through Suez,

VOL XXVI.

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altars. The pope further compared the deed to the Incarnation of the Word, and the Resurrection of the Saviour. All these iniquities, (and Henry IV. died from a similar fanaticism), may be mainly traced to the prin ciple laid down by the Jesuits, of the absolute supremacy of the Church over the State.

Bellarmine, Mariana (who published a book expressly vindicating the murder of Henry III.), Campian, Eudæmon Johannes, Parsons, &c., all promoted this view. Let us take into juxta-position with these actions just enumerated, the following extracts from the works of the three first cited authori. ties.

Let us suppose Clement or Ravaillac in doubt on the moral fitness of the murder of

retur Ecclesia credere vitia esse bona et virt tes

the respective kings that fell beneath their! If a mind like Chateaubriand's be thus hands. Bellarmine, the best controversialist enslaved under these degrading influences, of the age on the Romish side, in this state if this be the sober decision of the author of doubt, would tell him, "that should the of Atala in the nineteenth century, reviewpope enjoin the practice of vice, and prevent ing the dark deeds of ages past, can we wonthe observance of virtue, the Church is bound der at the Jacques Clement and Ravaillac of to believe that vice is virtue, and virtue vice, the sixteenth and seventeenth? Must we not under pain of mortal sin." come to the conclusion that there hangs around Romanism a bewildering mist, that "Fides Catholica docet omnem virtutem esse bo- shuts out the odious parts of the system from nam, omne vitium esse malum; si antem Papa erra- observation, or rather does the blindness ret præcipiendo vitia vel prohibendo virtutes, tene- grow in the man? But the opposite princimalas, nisi vellet contra conscientiam peccare. Te- ple, of loyalty to the sovereign, to the exclunetur enim in rebus dubiis Ecclesia acquiescere ju- sion of papal tyranny, prevailed largely both dicio summi Pontificis, et facere quod ille præcepit, in France and Spain In the latter we have non facere quod ille prohibet, ac ne forte contra con- seen that Philip II. was by no means inclinscientiam agat, tenetur credere bonum esse quod ille ed to obey the see in such matters, but præcipit, malum quod ille prohibet."-Disputationes R. Bellarmini Politiani, S. R. E. De Controversiis sought not simply freedom from coercion but Christiana Fidei adversus hujus temporis Hæreticos. to coerce the pope. In France, despite the Quat. tom. Paris. 1608. ful to Henry of Navarre. But still the principapal influence, a large party remained faithple existed in sufficient force to compel Henry to turn Romanist, and it was not until the reign of Clement VIII. that he received absolution. Even this did not save him from Ravaillac. The intervening popes, three in number, only occupy a space of two years.

"Jacobus Clemens nomine, in Heduis natus, pago ignobili Serbona, in sui ordinis Dominicano collegio Theologiæ operam dabat; cum cognito a Theologis quos erat sciscitatus tyrannum jure interimere posse, tum acceptis literis ab iis quos ab Henrico voto in urbe, aut palam stare odoratus erat suppresso consilio certus Regis perimendi in castra abiit."-Mariana Libri ad Philippum 3. Hispania Regem Catholicum. Anno 1605, lib. i. cap. 6, p. 51. An tyrannum opprimere fas sit?

The Jesuit victim is well described:"Clement 24 annis, simplici juvenis ingenio, neque robusto corpore sed major vis vires et animum confirmabat." A weak tool fitted by his simplicity and youth for Jesuit cunning to work to any point. Cognito a Theologis. Getting his instructions from his theological tutors to murder his king!

Campian's letter to the privy-council of Queen Elizabeth :—

"Be it known, that all Jesuits in the wide world's extent have long since entered into an engagement to cut off by any means heretic kings; and as to our society, I wish you to understand that all we who be long to the Society of Jesus, scattered far and wide through earth's expanse, have joined in a solemn league to overturn all your measures, which we shall easily effect while one of us shall be found in exist

Few pontiffs have shown a better spirit in some matters, for we really believe our author's eulogium on Clement correct:-" He wished that nothing should be perceptible in him but what was becoming and in harmony with the idea of a good, wise, and pious man. In all matters connected with the difficult case of Henry IV., he conducted himself with great dexterity; and the most amusing circumstance of the period in public sentiment is, the alteration of the opinion of the Sorbonne. They had declared the people absolved from the oath of allegiance to Henry III., and called on them to depose him; but in the case of Henry IV., then a heretic unreconciled to the Church, they acknowledged all dominion was from God, that every man who set himself in opposition to the king rebelled against God, and subjected himself to damnation. "The Sorbonne," says Ranke, "rejected the doctrine, Eudæmon Johannes, in contradiction to that it was lawful to refuse obedience to the Sir E. Coke, would also tell him, that de- sovereign, because not recognized by the posing kings "non est Jesuitarum propria pope, as an invention of evil-minded and illsed totius ecclesiæ, et quidem ab antiquissi- advised men." Jean Chastel, who attended mis temporibus consentione recepta doctrina the schools of the Jesuits, attempted to assasnostra est." He also enumerates twenty-sinate Henry, and confessed that he had imseven authors of the same opinion. Would bibed his notions from that body. The peothe zealots of any age need further stimu-ple could scarce be withheld from violence lants? against the Jesuits, and they were ordered to Chateaubriand has asked and answered quit the kingdom within fourteen days. the following question, "Que peut-on repro- Such were the mutations of the Sorbonne, cher aux Jesu tes? Un peu d'ambition si but even the Jesuits themselves were at this naturelle au génie."-Génie du Christian- period subject also to great divisions in their isme, vol. iii. p. 201. Paris, 1813. own order, for by a singular coincidence,

ence."

though every Jesuit bound himself by a fifth that system. But the Dominicans, to whose vow to devote himself to Spain, yet at this order St. Thomas belonged, were regarded very period discontented members of the as the best expositors, from that circum. body attacked it even in that country. At stauce, of his opinions. The Jesuits were this time the general, Aquaviva, was a Nea- determined to be paramount. Unluckily politan. Spain had reckoned on monopo- for them, the Dominicans held the seats of lizing this office, but the later elections had theology in Spain, and when Aquaviva pubbeen against her. The Inquisition had sub-lished the "Rule of Studies," it was immejected many offences to the simple cogni. diately condemned in that quarter. The zance of the Jesuits, to report on them to that Rule of Studies simply stated that the Jetribunal. One of the Jesuits charged his sui's demanded greater freedom of opinion, order with concealing and pardoning offen. that St. Thomas was very well in his time, ces, provided they were committed by its but that many modern works had combated officers. The Jesuits, though inspectors particular errors with greater effect, and was for the Inquisition, were also to subject them- intended obviously to put aside the angelical selves to the same self-inspection. The In- doctor, as a respectable divine in his time, quisition immediately noticed this point, and but that his period was past. The Jesuits arrested a provincial with some of his most now occupied a most important position; the active associates. Impressions went abroad eyes of Europe were upon them, for the anin consequence, that the order was guilty of gelic doctor, among other points, was a rigid heresy However they affected to support predestinarian. The marvel is, that so clearhim, Philip II. never cordially supported sighted a body (at such a time) should have them. He was accustomed to say they mooted the question. The possible case were the only body he could not understand, was, that the Thomists would have been 100 and that he was not able to trace the ten- much for them, had they a ted otherwise. dency of their actions. In this spirit one The Lutheran, the Calvinist, and the Rocan easily conceive that the malcontents of munist at this period divided the world bethe body found a ready hearing. Sufficient tween them. To us, the difference between influence was also used with Clement by the Calvin and Luther appears much less than king and the Spanish Jesuits to induce him it did then, for in reality these Reformers do to order a general congregation. These not differ so widely, although Luther greatly congregations were," as Ranke pithily re- modified his early sentiments under the mild marks, "as inconvenient to the General of teaching of Melanchthon. This religious the Jesuits as general councils to a pope question has now resolved into a controversy They were more especially so to Aquaviva with Calvin and Luther on one side, Mewhen there was dissension in his order. He lanchthon and Arminius on the other. The however submitted, and took his measures British Church, though accused of Calvinis. accordingly. tic Articles, has really tenfold more tendenIn the elections he contrived to exclude cy in its articles to Armin us and Melancheven the celebrated Mariana, and in the as-thon, than to Calvin or Luther. sembly of the congregation the general was acquitted of all infringement of the statutes of his order. Being personally safe, Aquaviva proceeded to meet the other points. Philip then demanded the renunciation of several points in the order that interfered with the Inquisition and the government. Aquaviva conceded them. Philip next required that the powers of the superiors should be limited, and that the general congregation should assemble at stated intervals. The congregation rejected this, but the pope, fully convinced of the necessity, ord lined that the superior and rectors should be changed every third year, and the general congregation meet on the sixth. This was of course submitted to from the conceded omnipotence of the pope, as head of the Church. But the troubles of the order did not end here; one of their most fatal disputes followed. The Jesuits had originally been Thomists. Their founder espoused

The rejec

tion of the numerous proposed alterations of Bucer, the doctrine of final perseverance, thrown out at once by the king and bishops, at the Hampton Conference, are clearly indicative of the supposed tendency then, and the expressions of the articles are sufficiently strong to persons who are disposed to take a fair view of the import of language; but, alas! these are few among controversialists. However, at this time Lutheranism took a far more moderate position than we are at present disposed to concede to it. The Jesuits thereupon were necessarily compelled, having at icked the fatalist system, to defend their position. Molina accordingly published a book, which, like mos jesuitical productions, evinced great acuten s, but small talent, and most heterodox notions. He had, of course, to maintain the doctrine of the Council of Trent, and he not only did so, but went a stage beyond it. He held, as Ranke states, "that the free-will can with.

out the aid of grace bring forth morally good, that after sixty-five meetings, Clement posworks; that it has the power to resist temp-sibly arrived at Sir Roger de Coverley's tation, and to raise itself to acts of hope, conclusion, that "much might be said on faith and repentance. When man has at- both sides." tained this point, God, then, for the sake of the merits of Christ, grants him grace, through which he experiences the super. natural operations of sanctification; but the reception of this grace, or its increase, in no way affects the activity or freedom of the will. On this, he maintains, all depends; it rests with ourselves to render the help of tians. Clement VIII. having possessed himGod effectual or ineffectual." This was, of course, totally opposed to the Thomists, who embraced the notions of Augustin.

In this state matters remained during the papacy of Clement. He was succeeded by Leo XI., who surviving his exaltation only fifteen days, the election then fell on Cardinal Borghese, who assumed the style of Paul V. His papacy was mainly occupied by a violent contest between him and the Vene

Bellar

self of Ferrara by means of very questionable equity, Venice became jealous for her personal liberty. By her peculiar constitu Molina further asserted the predestination tion she was nearly independent of her pow of that writer to be stern and cruel (in which erful neighbour. For reference to Romo he was quite right), and admitted no other was expressly forbidden in her decreta, and predestination than what is contained in pre- she even ventured to tax the clergy. The science, and that this prescience exercised republic further demanded that the benefices no force upon man's action. A large por- there should be filled by Venetians. tion of Molina was right, a much larger mine and Baronius, nighty names, held the wrong. The Dominicans called this down- immunity of the priesthood and of the papal right heresy, and the grand inquisitor pro- power from any temporal jurisdiction, but nounced Molina's book heretical, and con- they were more than met by the powerful demned it to the flames. But Aquaviva was arguments of the Venetian Sarpi,* whose not easily beaten. On the death of the in- works contain a complete statement of the quisitor he appealed to the pope. His posi- law on Church and State, defining their just tion was singular. His order was expelled limits. The Venetians completely espoused from France for the advocacy of the doctrine the notions of their talented countryman, and of the lawfulness of murdering heretic sove- the pope excommunicated the republic in reigns, and "Free Will" had expelled it from consequence, but the Venetian clergy refused Spain. On the first point the pope was with to comply with the order; not a single copy them; and they had contrived to get the sus of the pope's bull was affixed to the churches. piciously orthodox Henry IV. on their side, The Jesuits even were in doubt, but the by tacitly surrendering the league and ad- great principle of their institute induced them monishing the people to obedience to the to obey the pope. This quarrel, though ar. sovereign. We easily see into these incon- ranged amicably, ended with the severe loss sistencies now, but the Jesuits so mystified to the pope of his most devoted adherents in them, that they probably did not appear in Venice, the Jesuits, who thus at last became this light then. Henry accordingly re-es. expelled even from an Italian territory. The tablished the order in France. The pope fatal limit to Roman power was fixed by still wavered in directly espousing their Paoli Sarpi. "Justly is Paoli Sarpi's me. cause, when the Jesuits immediately changed mory held in reverence in all Catholic their tactics, and began to talk about a gene- states," says Ranke, "he was the able and ral council. He instantly exclaimed, "They victorious champion of those principles, dedare every thing-every thing." And they termining the bounds of ecclesiastical authordid so, for they quietly told him, that though ity, which are their guides and safeguards the pope was infallible, yet it was no article to this day." Great efforts were however of their faith to acknowledge one man or made in Poland, Sweden, and Germany by another for the true pope. A subtlety well the Romanists at this period. Henry IV. conceived, and perfectly in their refining also, though he proclaimed the Edict of spirit. Clement, however, came to no deci- Nantes, which preserved all Protestant rights, sion in their case; the Dominicans and the king of Spain on one side, the French and Jesuits on the other, kept him in the state of Mahomet's coffin. It must be owned also, that though both Dominicans, and Jesuits, and the Council of Trent were all theologically wrong, yet that the Jesuits were nearer to the errors of that council than the Dominicans, and it is owing to this difficulty also,

* An attempt was made on the life of Fra Paoli Sarpi, in the spirit of the age, by five assassins who head. He survived the attack, and the Venetian gave him fifteen wounds, one with a stiletto in the senate rewarded the skilful services of the surgeon who preserved his life with knighthood. He then wrote his History of the Council of Trent, the sheets James, so that the first edition appeared at London of which were sent by Sir Henry Wotton to King in 1619.

gave an immense tendency to the Romanist, when opposed to such men as Richelie opinions. The ascetic orders were never and Urban. The celebrated Gustavus more rife, and certainly must have gained by Adolphus appeared upon the scene as the the powerful contrast with the dissipated champion of Protestantism. Small opposi court and king. But the fatal issue to Rome tion was offered by Urban to this chief; he from the reign of Paul was, that though the had his own views of humbling Austria, the Romanists succeeded in regaining many great secret of his policy, and had abanGerman states to the see, yet the monarchi. doned no claim of the papacy in letting, like cal tendencies were stronger than the eccle- Richelieu, any instrument work out his po. siastical, which affected seriously the tem-licy. Urban became however inextricably poral power of the pope. Paul V. died from entangled with domestic wars, which exa fit of apoplexy while celebrating the vic- hausted his treasury, and led probably to tory of the Weissburgh, which put an end to his unhappy end, on July 29, 1644. In his the hopes of Frederic the Elector Palatine, time Italian troubles compelled the pope to the great supporter of the Protestant interest look at home. Ferrara, Urbino, which had in Germany. been seized by the popes, opened the eyes But ere we close the history of his reign of the Italian states, and rendered the sovewe may mention one fact in itself completely reign pontiff odious in the eyes of even illustrative of the times. This pope ap- Italians. The pontificate of Innocent X. pointed a commission to examine into the was one of quietude; and Alexander VII. opinion of the Pole Copernicus, concerning was but the shadow of a pope: possibly the the motion of the earth. The issue of that most stirring event of his reign was the sininquiry terminated in permission being gular circumstance of Queen Christina of granted to assert the motion for scientific Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus Adolreasoning, but inhibited persons from treat-phus, embracing the Roman Catholic faith, ing it as a truth. They allowed it as an and assuming in honour of this pope the hypothesis, but forbade it as a matter of doc name of Alessandra. His successor, Clctrine, conceiving it contrary to scripture. ment IX., was deservedly elected to the va His successor was Gregory XV. To him cant see. His reign is remarkable for its are owing the propaganda, and the introduc- bringing to a close the celebrated controtion of Ignatius and Xavier as saints into versy between the Jesuits and the Jansenists. Rome's ample calendar. Romanism in- We can do little more than give a brief ac creased wonderfully under this pope, and count of the subject-matter of this dispute, missions were promoted with most laudable and must refer our readers to the third vozeal throughout most parts of the world. To Xavier the world is certainly a debtor. The Jesuits obtained at this period that singular footing in China which has been the admiration of modern travellers, but they held this, like all their pussessions, but for a brief space. Gregory must however have died with great satisfaction, from the reflection of the high missionary spirit that had A distrust similar to that in Spain had marked his reign, and the tranquillity that arisen of them even at Rome. The nuncio reigned over Christendom. The calm of of Gregory XV., the Bishop d'Aversa, was this reign was succeeded by the turbulent expressly cautioned not to repose implicit period of Urban VIII. The genius of trust in them. With prudent wariness he Richelieu rose dominant over all. Urban was told to be careful-in various quarters was successful, or rather carried out the "e parimenti a' padri Gesuiti ricorrera con line of success that Gregory had laid in avveduta confidenza." We have seen their Germany, and elated with it, began to form political sentiments in a former part of this more extensive schemes of secular power. article; we shall now show small portion But Romanism was weakened at this period of their religious system. They defined sin by the gigantic efforts of Richelieu against to be a wilful infringement of the commands Spain and Austria. The pope was also of God. In what did this wilfulness contreated by the cardinal with as little decency sist? In perfect knowledge of the nature as any other power when he interfered with of the sin committed, and in the full consent his views. The Huguenot was also pro- of the will to its commission. This mode tected if Richelieu's policy lay that way. of viewing sin enabled them to get out of Urban entered also into the battle against vast difficulties. A person, according to the House of Austria. The Emperor Fer-them, might will the commission of evil, but dinand, however, was no mean foe even this was not sin. The word of Jesus pro.

lume of Ranke for a masterly sketch of the polemical disputation. The Jesuits had departed largely even from their own constitution, since they had deposed their general without any moral imputation against him, and yet by their very constitution they owed him unconditional obedience. This weak. ened their system.