none.

It is not without good reason that Michaelis observes,* "that in so early an age of the world we should find a systematic division of quadrupeds, so as never yet, after all the improvements in natural history, to have become obsolete, but, on the contrary, to be still considered as useful by the greatest masters of science, cannot but be looked upon as truly wonderful.”

The systematic division of quadrupeds, by Moses, to which Michaelis here refers, is found in the eleventh chapter of the Book of Leviticus, and it is too deeply interwoven with the Jewish worship and ritual to be passed over unnoticed. We mean

the division of animals into clean and unclean.

.

Michaelis judiciously remarks, that we are apt to consider the terms clean and unclean, as implying a division of animals with which we are entirely unacquainted, and then wonder that Moses, as a historian, in describing the circumstances of the deluge, which took place many centuries before the era of his own laws, should mention clean and unclean beasts, and, by so doing, pre-suppose that there was such a distinction made at that early period. But the fact is, that we ourselves, and indeed almost all nations, make this very distinction, although we do not express it in the same terms. Clean and unclean beasts is precisely tantamount to beasts usual and not usual for food. And how many animals are there not poisonous, but perfectly edible, which yet we do not eat, and at the flesh of which many among us would not feel a strong abhorrence, just because we have not been accustomed to it from infancy? As soon as we know what is

* Comment. on Laws of Moses, Art. cciv.

the real meaning of clean and unclean beasts, many errors, some of them ludicrous, and from which even men of learning have not been wholly exempt, instantly vanish. The word unclean applied to animals is no epithet of degradation. Of all animals, man was the most unclean; that is, human flesh was least of all things to be eaten; and such is the case in every nation not reckoned among cannibals. The lion and the horse are unclean beasts, but were to the Hebrews just as little the objects of contempt as they are to us.

In Lev. xi. the line of permission and exclusion of animals is drawn by means of those divisions which Nature has appointed to their feet.

I. QUADRUPEDS.-Solipedes, or animals of one hoof, such as the horse and the ass, are unclean. Fissipedes, or animals having hoofs divided into two parts, are clean: but then, this division must be entire, not partial; effective, not apparent, only. Moreover, animals having feet divided into more than two parts are unclean; so that the number of their toes, as three, four, or five, is cause sufficient for entire rejection of them, whatever other quality they possess. Such appears to be the principle of the Levitical distinction of animals, into clean and unclean, derived from the conformation of their feet: their rumination is a distinct character-but a character absolutely unavailing, without the more obvious and evident marks derivable from the construction we have noticed.

II. BIRDS. Of these, there are no particular characters given for distinguishing them by classes, as clean or unclean; but a list of exceptions is tendered, and these are forbidden, without enumerating those which are allowed. It will be found,

however, on consideration, that such as live on grain are not prohibited; and, as these are the domesticated kinds, we might almost express it in other words : -that birds of prey, generally, are rejected, i.e. those with crooked beaks and strong talons; whether they prey on fowls, on animals, or on fish; while those which eat vegetables are admitted, as lawful. So that the same principle is admitted, to a certain degree, among birds as formerly among beasts.

III. FISHES.-With regard to these also, Moses has made a very simple distinction. All that have scales and fins are clean: all others unclean. Upon this distinction, Mr. Taylor remarks, that fins are analogous to the feet of land animals; and as the sacred legislator had given directions for separating animals according to their hoofs and claws, so he directs that fishes, which had no clear and distinct members adapted to locomotion, should be unclean; but those which had fins should be clean, provided they also had scales.

IV. REPTILES and INSECTS are prohibited generally. The only exception was in favour of those winged insects which, in addition to four walking legs, have also two longer springing legs, for the purpose of leaping from off the earth. This provision embraces locusts, which are declared to be clean in all their four stages of existence, and are a common article of food in the East.

Such was the system of division adopted by the ancient Jewish naturalist, with reference to the animal kingdom. To inquire into the reasons upon which it was founded, forms no part of our business. That they were of a mixed nature, there is ground to believe; but it would be easy to show that they were also founded upon a correct knowledge of the

nature of the animal creation, and were induced, to some extent, by dietary and moral considerations.*

Upon Mosaic principles has been founded, more or less, almost every methodical arrangement in natural science subsequently made; the systems of Ray, Linnæus, and Cuvier being the most celebrated.

The animals of which mention is made in the Bible, like the other objects of animal and vegetable nature belong principally to the countries of Egypt and Palestine, though we have notices of some that occur in the peninsula of Sinai, as well as of various articles of merchandise consisting of animals from other countries, as apes and peacocks. These we shall describe, as far as is necessary to the elucidation of Scripture.

The following are the animals mentioned:Adder-Alligator-Ant-Ass, Wild and TameBear-Behemoth-Bittern-Boar, Wild-BuffaloCamel-Camel-Leopard - Chameleon - ChamoisCock-Coney-Crane-Crocodile-Dog-Dove

Fly-Fox - Gazelle

Locust-bird

tamus-Horse-Hyæna-Ibex-Jackal-Kangfud

-Leopard-Lion Locust

Mouse

-Ostrich-Panther-Partridge-Porcupine-Quail -Rhinoceros-Roe-Scorpion-Serpent-Snake

Stork-Wolf-Unicorn.

* See Townsend, in loco.

CHAPTER I.

DOMESTICATED ANIMALS.

1. THE ELEPHANT.-This extraordinary animal is nowhere spoken of in sacred Scripture, unless, as some think, it is the Behemoth of the book of Job. Of this, however, we have strong doubts, as may be seen in the article 'Behemoth.' In the book of Maccabees, we have an account of the manner in which the elephants were employed in the field of battle, and also of the methods adopted to excite them to a furious contest with the enemy.* They are often brought into the ranks, and compelled to fight in the most dangerous parts of the field of battle; they are led, armed before with coats of mail, and loaded on the back each with a square tower, containing from five to seven combatants. Upon the animal's neck sits its conductor, who goads it into the thickest ranks, and encourages it to increase the devastation. Wherever it goes, nothing can withstand its fury; it levels the men with its immense bulk, flings such as oppose it into the air, or crushes them to death under its feet. In the meantime, those who are placed upon its back combat as from an eminence, and fling down their weapons with double force, their weight being added

"And upon

And, that they might provoke the elephants to fight, they showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries. the beasts there were strong towers of wood, which covered each of them, and were girt fast to them by mechanical devices; there were also upon each of them two and thirty, strong men, who fought upon them, beside the Indian, that ruled them." (1 Mac. vi. 34, 37.)