In Atmane the engagement of the first person in all numbers of the imperative is expressed by the inactivity of Vriddhi. The second singular has its element s weakened by combination with the other element w, which encroaches on it and relaxes it, but its engagement has a sense of life, which, like that of third singular imperfect, is expressed by a. The second plural and the second and third dual are the same as in the imperfect; but the third singular and plural both end in -ām, which seems to express passive submission to the abiding realisation of what is ordered.

The imperfect has the augment a-, which with an initial vowel forms Vriddhi. It probably expresses the remotion of the past.

24. There is also a perfect, which is reduplicated like the third conjugation if it begin with a consonant, and if not by doubling the initial vowel; and this tense does not belong to the conjugational parts of the verb. It is formed as the following from lid, cleave:

If the root end in a vowel this vowel takes Guna in the second singular, Vriddhi in the first and third singular.

The Guna or Vriddhi in the singular is the complete subjective accomplishment, not expressed in dual or plural, because the subjectivity is less distinct in them (16, 157). When the radical vowel is a between single consonants it may be lengthened in the first singular and must be in the third singular, and in the other persons it may be changed to ē and the reduplication dropped,' as if the initial of the root was vocalised away and the confluent a was eased to e. The a of the perfect is what is past and over, taken up by the singular persons and by the first dual and plural, whose engagement is most strongly thought, but subjoined to the root in the other persons; but the first singular bib edima, third singular bib'edita, and second plural bibidat a, have given up the consonant of the person weakened by the sense of completion and the cessation of the process, and a has overpowered the merely connective i; also the sense of completion has made the third plural less subjective, so that the person ending is -us, as in the potential and imperfect of the third conjugation (21); the second and third dual are a close form of the present persons. And in Atmane the persons are those of the present with or without i to connect them to the reduplicated stem unaffected with Guna.

25. In the formation of most of the non-conjugational parts of the verb, a few roots ending in vowels, and all roots ending in consonants, except a number of these, amounting to one hundred and three, take i before the initial consonant of the added element.2 The roots which require this i are perhaps those which are not thought verbally enough to coalesce immediately with the thought of the added element, but require a light thought of verbal succession to be added to them to 2 Ibid. pp. 140, 141.

1 Williams, pp. 134, 137.

enable them to take up that element (V. 48). Such a thought finds ready expression in i between two consonants whose utterance is facilitated by i; but it needs to be more strongly thought to get expression after a vowel.

Those roots which do not take i before the above elements may optionally reject it also in the perfect before the second singular person ending.1

Causal stems take i probably because the idea is too heavy to coalesce readily with the added element.

26. There is a future formed by uniting the nominative case of the noun of the agent in -tri with the present of the verb asmi, to be, both in Parasmai and Atmanē. The third person singular, dual, and plural is the nominative of the noun in these numbers. The noun in this formation gets the sense of a future participle which otherwise it never has. Nor is there in Sanskrit any future participle with which the stem of this tense can be identified; 2 but it shows the affinity between the noun of the agent and the Latin participle in -turus. There is another future formed by annexing -sya to the root and using the present person endings. This sya seems to have a signifi

cance similar to -sya of the genitive (9).

In both futures the root is Gunated through all the persons, subject to the restrictions mentioned in 15, and except in certain uncommon roots of the sixth conjugation,3 being strengthened with the thought of future accomplishment.

27. Besides the imperfect and the perfect there is an aorist which has seven different forms, all of which take the augment and the imperfect person endings, the third plural being -us, unless the tense element ends in a.

(1.) The fullest form subjoins -sis to the root. Many roots ending in -ā, -ē, -ō, and -ai, with three in -am, take this form in Parasmai ; -ē, -ō, and -ai being changed to -ā, and m as usual to a nasalisation. In Atmane these roots follow the next formation.

(2.) A more usual form is -s, the radical vowel taking Vriddhi in Parasmai before all the terminations, but remaining unchanged in Atmane unless it be final i, i, u, or u, when it takes Guna. In the second and third singular i is inserted after s to preserve tense and person, -sis, -sit.

(3.) Those roots which take i before the non-conjugational forms have in the second and third singular is, it instead of -isis, -isit. They also Gunate the radical vowel as in the future, both in Parasmai and Atmanē, unless it be final, when it takes Vriddhi in Parasmai, Guna in Atmane. These roots are thought less verbally, and therefore take i (25). The idea of them consequently differs little in Parasmai and Atmanē, so that in both they take up a sense of the past, which expresses itself by Guna, unless the vowel is final; this in its significance is probably akin to the sense of remotion expressed by a of the augment. If the vowel is final, it takes up in Parasmai, as the mind is passing to the verbal i, the sense of cessation more proper 1 Williams, p. 141. 2 Bopp, Gram. Sans., sect. 460.

VOL. II.

3 Williams, p. 140.

I.

to past activity in Parasmai, and is Vriddhied. But those roots which do not take -i, and which form the aorist according to 2, are thought more verbally with a sense of activity in Parasmai and of quiescence in Atmane. These are differently affected by the past; for the past as affecting activity gives a sense of cessation or quiescence whose natural expression is Vriddhi (3); but the past does not thus affect Atmanē, which even in the present is thought with a degree of quiescence. The association of quiescence, however, with this form weakens in it the sense of remotion; but just as thought is passing to the tense element it takes up in Atmanē a sense of remotion sufficient to Gunate a final vowel.

(4.) Another form is -sa, subjoined to the root; but this is taken only by certain roots ending in -x', -s, or h, preceded by i, u, or ri, and the final consonant is changed to k before the aorist element. (5.) More usual is a subjoined to the root.

In this form and the preceding a is dropped before first singular -am; for the past is involved as a memory in the consciousness of self; but in first person dual and plural a of the past and a of self-consciousness are both retained in a (17).

(6.) Another form is the mere root with the person endings of the imperfect.

(7.) A few primitive verbs and all causals reduplicate and subjoin -a to the root.1

It appears from the above that only the second and third forms have Guna or Vriddhi; as if in these only the root took up in part the element of the past. Such an absorption into the root corresponds to the abbreviation in these forms of the tense element, which in its full form is -sis, but is in these reduced to -s.

There is a similar reduction of the tense element in the fifth form compared with the fourth, and yet no compensation for it by Guna or Vriddhi. But in this case the expression of the past, which is a, is in both forms, the s being a mere abstract element of fact. In the other case it is the expression of the past which is given up, namely, the reduplication of 8.2

This s is probably akin to the s of the future and of the genitive, expressing in this application of it an abstract sense of fact as an issuing into realisation. Perhaps it is the same s which marks the subject, for it is in the subject that fact issues into realisation. And the same element might denote plurality as increase of number (9). S has a significance of this kind in the Sanskrit root, su parere, whence; sūnus viós, son (87).

28. A benedictive or precative is formed by subjoining, in Parasmai, -yas to the root unchanged and without -i, and in Atmane by subjoining yas to the root which is Gunated, if it be one of those which take i (25); some roots ending in a vowel are Gunated in Atmane, though they do not take i. The person endings are those of the imperfect, the second and third singular Parasmai being -yās, -yat; and in Atmane the second and third dual being -siyāstām,

1 Williams, p. 147-152.

2 Ibid. pp. 108, 152, 153.

-ṣāyāstām, the second and third singular sīstās, sista, the first singular -siya; the other persons reducing -siyas to -sī, and third plural being -siran, like the potential.

The precative element is to a remarkable degree stronger in Atmanē than in Parasmai, as if the force of prayer in urging the accomplishment was less felt the more activity there was in the subject, and the more the accomplishment was thought in consequence as determined by the energy of the subject. The being or doing of the subject is thought in the precative element as the matter of the prayer, it is expressed in that element precatively. The formative element of the desiderative verb, presently to be described, is s, which seems to be akin to the Sanskrit verb is desiderare; and not very remote from this is yāks poscere. Like this is the Parasmai precative element, and like this, strengthened with s, the Atmane. The accomplishment or root is thought in Parasmai unaffected by the urgency of prayer with any change which needs expression; and even in Atmane those roots which are thought so verbally as to coalesce directly with the verbal formative elements are for the most part thought precatively without any change in their idea which needs expression, but the other roots are so affected by it as to be strengthened with Guna. Some also ending in vowels take Guna though they do not take i, the mind catching the urgency of prayer as it passes to the precative element, and this being felt as a change in the radical idea which expresses itself in Guna as it is a vowel that is then being uttered.

A conditional is expressed as past of future by giving to the future in -sya the imperfect person endings, and prefixing the augment.1

29. The infinitive is the accusative of a verbal noun in -tu, the root being affected as in the future in -tasmi, so that if -tā in the third singular of the latter be changed to -tum, it gives the infinitive.2 30. The derived verbs in Sanskrit are the passive, the causal, the desiderative, and the intensive.

The passive is formed by subjoining ya to the root, and is conjugated as an Atmane verb of the fourth conjugation.

It is, however, not very commonly used, except in the third singular and plural present and imperative. For although a passive construction is exceedingly common in Sanskrit syntax, yet almost all the tenses of the passive verb are expressed by participles.2

The passive element ya seems to be akin to the neuter element ya of the fourth conjugation and to the potential element; at least so far as that there is in all of these a reduction of force in the succession of the being or doing (15, 18). Or does ya of the passive express a sense of motion to, the subject being recipient of what comes to it?

Before the passive element six roots in -a, and one or two in è, ai, and ō, change their final vowel or diphthong to 7, as if they took up the passivity, and final i and u are lengthened as involving a sense of quiescence. In the non-conjugational parts, except the perfect, all roots ending in a vowel may Vriddhi the vowel and subjoin -i, or may use the regular Atmanē form. In the former case the mind, in passing 2 Ibid. p. 154.

1 Williams, p. 153.

to the quiescent subject, catches such a sense of the passivity as affects the radical idea and expresses itself by Vriddhi (3) in the vowel which is being uttered, as well as by -i, which is a trace of the passive element subjoined to it.

In the third singular of the aorist (27), the termination -ista, -sta, is dropped, and is taken instead, a final vowel of the root being Vriddhied, and if the root end in a consonant the radical vowel being either Gunated, or if it be a lengthened.1

The sense of the subject is not strong enough in the Sanskrit passive to maintain the weakest person in the past tense, and the Atmanē quiescence being thus unexpressed, a trace of the passive is expressed by -i, and there is a tendency to affect the root with long vowels.

31. Causal verbs are formed from every root, and conjugated, as has been described (15), for the tenth conjugation. In the passive of causals, the element -aya is dropped in the conjugational parts, and optionally in the non-conjugational, but the causal changes of the root are retained throughout.2

32. Every root in the ten conjugations may take a desiderative form by reduplicating its initial, subjoining s and in the conjugational parts adding a, i being inserted before s if the root takes i (25). And although this form rarely appears as a verb, yet nouns and participles derived from it are not uncommon. There are certain desiderative verbs which in use have condensed their meaning into a simple idea. Desideratives of Atmane verbs are themselves Atmanē.’ Causals retain -ay, and take i in forming a desiderative.

When a root takes i before the desiderative element, the radical vowel may in general be optionally Gunated, a separate emphasis affecting the thought of the root as the desired accomplishment; when it does not take i, and ends in vowels, these are changed, i and u to ī and ū, ē, ai, and ō to ā, ri and rī to īr, or after a labial to ur,* the mind as it passes to the element of desire dwelling on the thought of the desired accomplishment so as to increase the vowel which is then being uttered. The desideratives, as involving a heavy idea, take i in all the non-conjugational parts except the precative of Parasmai to connect the desiderative stem with the added element; 5 euphony requires i in the precative of Atmanē.

Causals may take a desiderative form, as from pat fall, pātayāmi I cause to fall, pipātayiṣāmi I desire to cause to fall; and desideratives may sometimes take a causal form, as div play, dudyūṣāmi I desire to play, dudyūṣayāmi I cause to desire to play."

33. Every root may take an intensive form; which, however, is even less used than the desiderative. In the present participle, and in a few nouns, it may sometimes appear. It either expresses repetition, or gives intensity to the radical idea.7

There are Atmane intensives and Parasmai intensives. Both are formed with reduplication of the initial and Guna of the reduplicated vowel, whether it be long or short; but the Atmane intensive is

1 Williams, p. 155-158.

• Ibid. p. 164.

2 Ibid. pp. 158, 160.

5 Ibid. p. 165.

7 Ibid. p. 165.

3 Ibid. p. 163.

Ibid. pp. 163, 165.