General Principles of the Structure of Language

formed from the passive stem, the Parasmai from the root. In the former also, if the vowel of the passive stem be a, it is lengthened in the reduplication syllable; and if the passive stem contain ri, this becomes rī in the intensive; if it have a nasal after a, this nasal is frequently repeated in the reduplication syllable. In the non-conjugational parts the Atmane intensives drop ya of the passive stem and take i; they retain y for euphony between two vowels.

The Parasmai intensives take the subjective Guna of 16, and Guna in the singular of the perfect. In the non-conjugational parts except the precative they take i1 (25).

Sometimes a nasal is taken in the reduplication syllable though there be none in the root.2

An intensive Atmane or middle strengthens both parts of the idea, the subject realising the accomplishment and receiving or experiencing it. The latter, when strengthened, expresses itself in the passive form; the former gets expression rather in the Gunated reduplication syllable; and the whole formation is usually deponent in meaning.3

Intensive verbs are said to be capable of causal desiderative forms, as tud strike, tōtud strike often, tōtudayāmi I cause to strike often, tōtudiṣāmi I desire to strike often, tōtudayiṣāmi I desire to cause to strike often. But Bopp says that derived forms of intensives are nowhere to be found.1

34. Verbs are formed from nouns by subjoining to the stem of the noun -a, with Guna of a final vowel if capable of it, and lengthening of a vowel before a final nasal; these express action defined by the noun. They are formed also by subjoining to the nominal stem -ya expressive of wish or desire (compare Sanskrit to desire, iórns desire); it is taken up by a final vowel, so that final a or a becomes ī, final i or u is lengthened, final ri becomes rī, and final n is dropped; also by subjoining -aya or -ya causative or active, a final vowel being dropped before -aya; and if the nominal stem have more than one syllable, and end in a consonant, the consonant and the preceding vowel being dropped; p is sometimes inserted before -aya, especially if the stem be monosyllabic and end in a, and before p Vriddhi is required; if the stem be monosyllabic, and end in a consonant, it may take Guna before -aya. They are formed also by subjoining -sya, -asya, or kāmya, expressive of desire; kam means to love or desire.5

35. Present participle Parasmai is formed by -t or -at, for -nt, -ant, being applied just as if substituted for nti, -anti in third plural present.

The present participle Atmane is formed by -māna, as if substituted for-nte, by -ana, as if for -ate of third plural present. Future participles Parasmai and Atmane are formed like the present, from the future in -sya.7

The nasals in the present participles, by virtue of their uninterrupted breathing, give a sense of going on, which in Parasmai com

1 Williams, p. 166-168.

3 Ibid. sect. 760.

Williams, p. 168-170.

Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 756.
Bopp, Gram. Sans., sect. 580.
Ibid. pp. 170, 171.

7 Ibid. p. 182.

bines with an element of realised fact t to express fact as in process, but in Atmane is repeated to give a sense of its abiding.

The past passive participle is formed generally by adding -ta to the root, expressive of realisation complete (8), but if the root end in rī, then by adding -na, expressive of quiescence.

Some roots ending in long vowels, and some ending in consonants, and not inserting i, form it in -na; roots ending in vowels do not insert i before -ta or -na, though they may take it in the futures; but in many cases the final vowel of the root is changed, and roots ending in m or n reject those nasals before ta; roots ending in consonants take i before ta, or do not take it, according as they do generally in the non-conjugational parts.

In this participle of causals -aya- is dropped, but i is taken; taken also before ta by desideratives.

This participle is also sometimes formed from nouns by adding -ita, as if the word was the participle of a denominative verb in -aya; sometimes -ina takes the place of -ita.1

Past active participles are derived from past passive participles by adding -vat to the stem of the latter. This is the formative of possessive adjectives, and its full form is vant, as appears from the declension; -vant, -vat, -vas probably express possession as increase; Sanskrit, tavat tantus, vasu res divitiæ; Latin, -osus.

The perfect participle active is formed from the stem of that tense, as it is in the dual and plural by adding -vas when that stem contains more than one syllable, -ivas when it consists of one syllable only; the s becomes t before an initial consonant of case ending.

A perfect participle Atmane is formed by adding -ana to the stem of the perfect dual and plural.3

36. Gerunds are formed by adding -twa to uncompounded roots, ya to roots compounded with prepositions or other adverbial prefixes. Bopp considered -twa to be the instrumental case of an affix -tu, of which the infinitive affix -tum is the accusative. It has been remarked that the form of the root in these two formations often differs considerably, as from vak' are formed vaktum, uktwa; and this prevents the two formations from being regarded as different cases of the same noun, but it need not prevent the two affixes from being so regarded. Ya is a weaker affix corresponding to the compound nature of the verbal stem, for this would make the action or state which the stem denotes less distinctly thought as object of a relation, and the relation itself less precise. Accordingly, whereas twa is a case of tu which stands for the object of the relation, ya has no such stem, except after a short vowel, when it has t; and whereas the former is an instrumental case, the latter seems to be a dative case ending, which expresses a relation more abstract and general.

An accusative gerund is formed by adding -am to the root, which is so strengthened with a sense of fact as object, that the radical vowel takes the same changes as in the causal formation.5 Roots which

1 Williams, p. 172-176. 4 Ibid. p. 117.

2 Ibid. p. 176.
5 Ibid. p. 179.

3 Ibid. pp. 176, 177.

begin with a vowel long by nature or position, except ap, ank", and roots having an initial a before two consonants, and all roots of more than one syllable, except urnu, form their perfect by taking ām, followed by the perfect of an auxiliary verb.1

37. Future passive participles or participial adjectives are formed by affixing -tavya, -anīya, or -ya, to the Gunated root; tav seems to be the verbal element tu Gunated; anī seems to be akin to the Atmanē participial ending ana; and y seems to be akin to the dative ending. These formations commonly denote obligation, propriety, or fitness, to be treated as the root denotes, and sometimes correspond to Latin -bilis.2

38. There are a great many prepositions in Sanskrit, but they are generally found as inseparable prefixes qualifying the sense of roots, and the nouns and verbs derived from roots. Only three are commonly used in government with nouns, ā as far as, prati at, to, anu after; and of these the two last are rarely so used except as postpositions; ā is generally not separated from the word which it governs.

Conjugations are few, and those which are most used follow words as enclitics. These are k'a and, tať a so, hi for, vā or, tu but.3

39. One of the most striking features of Sanskrit is its tendency to run together the words of a sentence, and to throw members of a sentence into compounds. All the parts of a sentence tend to join each to the following one, so that the final letter of one is affected by the initial of the other. And compounds are formed of two or more words connected by concord or government, or as by copulative conjunction, all of which but the last are mere stems, making nouns or adjectives which are inflected as such. The copulative compounds take a dual ending when they denote two animate objects, and a plural ending when they denote more than two, but when they denote two or more inanimate objects they may be neuter singular.4

Complex compounds involving concord and government and copulation all together, or two of these, and consisting of four, five, or even six words, occur commonly in the best specimens of Sanskrit, and in the simplest prose writings, for the most part as adjectives. Sometimes the last member of a compound changes its final syllable; for this no longer expresses its substance but that of the compound. The most common substitution is that of a for the final vowel or final consonant and preceding vowel of a word.5

40. The prepositions, though not usually thought with full distinctness as relative elements involving a simultaneous sense of the antecedent and the consequent, and in transition from the former to the latter, are greatly used in combination with the antecedent in forming compound verbs, which pass to their object through the prepositional element, or with the consequent in forming compound adverbs, which consist of a preposition and a substantive governed by it, and often preceding it in the stem form. Prepositions in compound verbs may also qualify them adverbially.

1 Williams, p. 139. 4 Ibid. p. 273-287.

2 Ibid. p. 180.
5 Ibid. p. 288-291,

Ibid. pp. 271, 272.

Compound verbs are also formed by adverbs or the stems of nouns used adverbially prefixed to the roots kri, to make, and bu, to become; but these scarcely occur except as passive participles. The compound verbs, formed with prepositions, are of more frequent occurrence than simple verbs; and a very small proportion of Sanskrit roots are in common use at all as verbs. Those that are so appear in a multitude of different forms with one or two or even three prepositions prefixed, the remainder being used principally in the formations of nouns. In the compound verbs the augment and the reduplication are inserted between the preposition and the root.1

From roots compounded with prepositions nouns also are formed in great abundance.2

41. Now with regard to all these compounds, the question arises, whether thought spreads through the components retaining the earlier ones while the succeeding ones are being thought, or only mingles each with that which follows, as it passes from one to the other, leaving the preceding element when it has passed to the succeeding? That the latter is the nature of the mental action appears plainly from the account of those compounds which has been given above. For the compound members of a sentence show only a higher degree of that mutual approximation of parts which takes place throughout the sentence, and in which the mind passes from part to part, almost mingling them as it passes. And that the compound verbs are loose and open in their structure, with little mingling of their parts, appears from their insertion between these of the augment and reduplication. 42. There is no indefinite article in classical Sanskrit.3 definite article is not unfrequently expressed by the pronoun sa.*

The

The verb agrees with the nominative case in number and person; the adjective participle or adjective pronoun with the substantive in gender, number, and case, the relative with the antecedent in gender, number, and person.*

The copula is very often omitted.4

The verb is usually, though not always, placed last in the sentence.* Nothing is more common in Sanskrit syntax than for the verb to be omitted altogether or supplied from the context.5

Causal verbs, with two objects, govern both in the accusative.

The genitive in Sanskrit is constantly used for the dative, locative, or even accusative. It is more especially used for the dative, so that almost all verbs may take a genitive as well as dative of the object to which anything is imparted.7 The aim or ultimate object of the action is here thought as its motive or origin.

The prevalence of a passive construction is the most remarkable feature in the syntax of this language. Passive verbs are joined with the agent, instrument, or cause in the instrumental case, and agree with the object in number and person.' "8 The passive participle usually takes the place of the past tenses of the passive verb.8

1 Williams, p. 292–297.

4 Ibid. p. 299.

7 Ibid. p. 312.

2 Ibid. p. 292.
Ibid. p. 308.
8 Ibid. p. 314.

3 Ibid. p. 298.
• Ibid. p. 310.

The Sanskrit infinitive is used like the Latin supine.1

The distinction of tenses has evidently diminished in Sanskrit since the various tense formations came into existence. Bopp says that the past tenses and also the future are used so indifferently that he distinguishes them not by their meaning but merely by their form.2 Williams says that the reduplicated preterite or perfect is said to express a past of some definite period, but may also be used as an aorist. The thought of completion might pass into the former use as defining the point from which to measure the past up to the present.

Participles in Sanskrit often discharge the functions of the tenses, constantly of the past and future. 4

The sparing use made in Sanskrit of relative pronouns, conjunctions, and connective particles is compensated by the use of the gerunds, by means of which the sense of a clause may be suspended, and sentence after sentence strung together without the aid of a single copulative. Some of the chief peculiarities of Sanskrit syntax are to be traced to the frequency of their occurrence.5

43. Examples, of which 1-13 are a story from the Hitopadex'a:6 be 3d sing. gen. sage gen. penance grove loc.

sage

(1.) As by name nāma munir, (there) is in the penance-grove of the sage Gautama a sage named Mahātapās; tapovane is a compound of the stem tapas and vana, whose locative is tapōvanē; as blends into ō before the soft consonant v; nāma is an adverb; - is the visarga or breathing to he instr. hermitage which s is reduced at the end of a sentence. (2.) Te·na ax'rama neighbourhood loc. mouse young crow mouth abl. fall past part. see sannid an ē mūṣika žāvakah kākamuk'a ·d b'ras to dris past part.

Gautama sya mun ēs tapō vane Maha tapā

tah, by him in the neighbourhood of the hermitage a young of a mouse fallen from the beak of a crow was seen; the two a's coalesce in tenaxramasannid'ānē; sannid'ānam is a compound noun formed with -na (3), from sam with, ni down, d'a put; b'rasto is nominative singular masculine past participle of brax to fall, -as changed to ō (2); dristar for dristas, -s changed to the breathing visarga at the end then compassion joined instr. that instr. sage instr. of a sentence (2). (3.) Tatō dayā yuk t'ēna tēna wild rice grain instr. pl. rear nivāra kan