afraid accus. to see ger. devotion efficacy abl. the instr. sage b'ītam ā lōk ya tapan pra·bāvāt tē· na muninā strong super. nom. cat made

mouse nom.

musikō

bal istō viḍālo kritan, on perceiving the mouse afraid, from the efficacy of devotion by the sage, the mouse was made a very the cat nom. dog abl.

made

strong cat; ālōk compound verbal stem. (6.) Sa viḍālan kukkur·ād fear 3d sing. then dog dog gen. tiger abl. great bib'ēti, tatō kukkurah kritan, kukkura sya vyag'r'an mahad fear that neg. interval accus. it tiger nom. made b'aya tad an⚫ antar ã sa vyagrah kritan, the cat fears the dog, then (it was) made a dog; the dog has great fear of the tiger, then immediately it was made a tiger; vidalar s becomes the breathing before k (2); kukkurād for kukkurāt before b (2); bibēti third singular present of b' third conjugation, vyag rān for vyagrat before m. now tiger accus. even mouse not difference regard (7.) Ať a vyāgram api mūṣika · nir · vix'ēṣā pax'・ ya

sage

3d sing.

ti..

munir, now the sage regards even the tiger no different from mouse; musikanirvixesã is a compound of the stem musika, and nirvix'ēsa, which is compounded of nis without, and vixēsa difference, which is a nominal stem from vi apart, and y'is distinguish, the whole compound being an adjective accusative masculine agreeing with vyāgram, or an adverbial accusative neuter; pax'yati is third singular present then all pl. there stand person pl. the of pay' fourth conjugation. (8). Atan sarvě ta tra stā g'anās tā tiger accus. see ger. say 3d pl. vyāgrã dris ṭwā vad anti, then all the persons residing there on seeing the tiger say; atas an adverb formed from a by the termination -tas with, from; tatra adverb of place from ta; st'ās drops s of this instr. sage instr. mouse this tiger- hood (9.) Anēna muni nā mūṣikō ya vyagʻra tā

the plural by 2. bring past part.

ni ta, by this sage this mouse is brought to the condition of a tiger; ya is for ayam (2); vyāgʻratā is a derivative like puruṣatā this hear ger. the tiger uneasy think 3d sing. imperf.

on

fut.

(3). (10.) etak krutwa sa vyug ras savyat'ō K'intayat, hearing this the tiger uneasy thought; etak is for etat (2), neuter of esas; sas vyāgʻras savyat'as ak'intayat changed according. to 2; savyat is compounded of sa with, and vyať troubled; k'int is of as long this instr. sage instr. live so long tenth conjugation. (11.) Yavad aněna muni nā g'īv·i·tavya tāvad this 1st pers. gen. self form story neut. disgrace 'making not flee idã mama siva ・rūp · āk yānam a·kīrti · karã na palāy • iṣṣya' 3d sing. Atm. tē, as long as (it is) to be lived by this sage, so long this disgraceful original-form-story of me will not pass away; g'ivitavya (37); āk yānam is from ā to, and k'ya speak; kirti means glory, thus with to look ger. sage kill infin. with up take akirti disgrace. (12.) Iti sam ā · lōk · ya munî hantu sam ud ya' past part.

tan, on thus reflecting he was taken up with killing the sage. sage nom. he gen. do desid. part. know ger. again mouse become (13.) Munis ta sya kikirṣitā g'n'a twa punar musikō bava

thus say ger.

mouse indeed make past part. ity uk twā mūṣika ēva kri• tan, the sage on knowing his intention on saying thus become mouse again, mouse it was made indeed; k'ikīrsitam is the accusative singular past passive participle of the desiderative of kri to do; b'ava is second singular imperative

us instr. one

stand

of bū; uktwā is gerund of vak' say. (14.) Asmā · b'ir ēka‘tra st'i· pass. 3d sing. imper.

tā, let it be stood by us in one place, for let us stand in misery instr.

go

one place; ēkatra adverb of place from ēka.1 (15.) Duhk'ēna gam pass. 3d sing.

ya te, he is gone to by misery; the passive construction is a favourite idiom.1

44. The prevalence of the construction with the past passive participle is a striking and important feature in the above examples, and the use of the passive voice in the last two. There is a remarkable weakness of organisation in 13, in which the subject munis seems to have nothing which he realises subjectively.

45. One of the most distinctive features in Sanskrit is the great use which is made of Guna and Vriddhi. This cannot be explained on merely euphonic principles, but must express elements of thought taken up by the root in its various applications to the objects of thought (3, 15, 16, 24, 26-34, 36, 37). It is, as has been observed, an approach to the characteristic formation of the Syro-Arabian languages, though very distinct from that formation (15). And it corresponds exactly with the approximation of the Indian to the Syro-Arabian in respect of the readiness of excitability of his mental action. For while the Indo-European races have this quality in a higher degree than the Syro-Arabian, the Indian is one of those which have it less than others of the Indo-European family (chap. i., Part I., sect. VI.) In him thought spreads on the radical element so as to take in along with it some of the elements associated with it in the object of thought which it is employed to denote. And though this is to be seen in Latin and Greek also, it prevails much less in these languages which are spoken by races of quicker excitability; the tendency to take in a large object in the single act of thought being proportional to the slowness of the mental action in this family, as in every other.

ZEND.

46. The Zend, as the language is now called in which the Zendavesta or sacred writings of the Parsees were written, is believed to have been the ancient language of Bactria, and to have prevailed along the northern part of the tableland of Iran or Persia.2 It has very close affinity to Sanskrit, but more to the old Sanskrit of the Vedas than to the classical Sanskrit of later times.3 It is extant only in the two dialects in which the scanty fragments of the

1 Williams, p. 315.

2 Geiger, Handbuch der Awesta-Sprache, sect. 3. 3 Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, &c., of the Parsees, p. 117.

Parsee scripture are written. The more ancient of these is called the Gatha dialect, because the most important pieces preserved in this idiom are the Gathas or songs; the younger, in which most of the books of the Zendavesta are written, is the classical Zend language, which was for many centuries the spoken and written language of Bactria. The Bactrian language seems to have been dying out in the third century before Christ, and to have left no daughter language behind it.1

47. The vowels were more developed in Zend than in Sanskrit. In the Zend alphabet there are four characters for the vowel e, two short and two long, but the original pronunciation of the vowels can only be guessed. The e which corresponded to Sanskrit è was probably broader than the other e; for writers often confound the latter with ī, which circumstance seems to hint at its close affinity to that sound.3 And probably these vowels may be e, e, e, ē. There are also a, ā, ã, i, ī, u, ū, o, ō; and diphthongs formed of a or a before i, u, or o; also eu, ei, ou, oi, ōi, ui, ūi. There is also a character ae, which, in the middle of words, according to Haug, may be a diphthong; but in the beginning of words ae and ao are thought by him to be a corrupt mode of writing taken from the Semitic initial Elif. For the Zend texts are handed down to us, not in their original characters, but in a later form of writing which arose very likely shortly after the commencement of the Christian era, when Syriac literature began to spread in Persia, and which is read from right to left." In Bopp's opinion aë was equivalent to Sanskrit e, in which case it might be written ē. According to Geiger, the Guna of i or i is ae or oi, that of u or u is ao or eu, the Vriddhi of i or ī is ai, that of u or ū is āu.7

The consonants are: q, k, k, g, gʻ, k', g', t, 0, d, §, p, f, b, h, y, X', S, 8, z, z, v, w, r, ǹ, n.

There is great doubt as to the true utterance of many of the Zend consonants. There is a peculiar character used for final t, and for t initial before consonants, but its utterance is not known. The character which corresponds etymologically to Sanskit x' is said to have been uttered as ss; and there are two characters for n which seem to have differed only in strength and definiteness of utterance," and two for ǹ, of which one had an affinity for a and the other for i and e, as if the latter was more palatal, and the former more guttural.10 48. The words are separate in Zend, so that the phonetic changes take place only within a word.11

Zend is more tolerant than Sanskrit of concurrent vowels, retaining each its natural utterance.12

Before final m the vowels i and u are lengthened.13

If i, i, e, e, or y, follow a dental, a labial, n, s, or especially r, i is generally inserted before that consonant; and if u, ū, or v follow it, u is apt to be inserted before it. 14

1 Haug, pp. 42, 43.

4 Ibid. p. 54.

Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 33. 9 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 60. 12 Ibid. sect. 23.

2 Geiger, sect. 6.

5 Ibid. p. 53.

7 Geiger, sect. 14.

10 Ibid. sect. 62.

13 Ibid. sect. 27.

3 Haug, p. 53.

8 Haug, p. 56. 11 Geiger, p. 8. 14 Ibid. sect. 28.

Before an initial r an i or u may be introduced by this influence of the above vowels respectively following it.1

Before final m or n, a constantly becomes ě, often also in the middle of a word before m, n, nt, or r.2

After y or a palatal, a often becomes i.3 Final yam, vam, become im, um.4

After the a- vowels s becomes h,5 after the other vowels $.6

Concurrences of consonants are lightened by dropping consonants, especially r, y, and v; by changing y and v to i and u; by aspiration and softening; by insertion of ĕ.7

Before t, guttural post-palatal and palatal letters become k, dentals become x', labials become p, x' s and z become s. 8

Before n and m tenues and medials are aspirated, and z becomes x'.o Before y and r tenues and medials are aspirated; before y, h often becomes q; before rp, rk, h is inserted. 10

8

Before s the mutes are aspirated, and if medial lose their sonancy; before final s dentals become s and sibilants s.11

Final ā and ī are shortened, -ya is apt to become -, -bya often becomes -ve or -we, and -byo becomes -vyo.12

The original endings -as and -as have become in Zend -anh and -aonh, except before the enclitics -k'a and -k'id, and before enclitics beginning with a dental, before which latter ĕ is inserted; -anh and -aonh are apt to become -o and -ao.13

In the Gatha dialecte is often used for a, ā, ã, or o; and o for a and ā; the softening of consonant concurrences is extended; v is little used, and often b instead of it.14

49. There are three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter.

Nominal stems are formed in -a, -i, and -u; in -an to express the agent, -ana the neuter abstract, -āni feminine of masculine in -a, -anh (nominative -o or -are) neuter abstract, -at, -ant (feminine -i) adjectives, in substantives and adjectives, ka substantives, ma, -man abstract and concrete nouns, -na, -nu substantives, -ra adjectives, -0a abstract nouns, -tu (mostly masculine) concrete and abstract nouns, -tar (nominative ta) doer, -Ora (Orō masculine, Orem neuter), -tāt feminine abstract, -ya adjectives expressing affection with the root, -vat, mat adjectives of having; the root also being subject to Guna or Vriddhi.15

50. The case endings are similar to those of Sanskrit, but with all stems the ablative singular -at is distinguished from the genitive; 16 the vowel of the accusative is reduced compared with Sanskrit, -em for am, ãm for ām; the vocative singular is the bare stem when this ends in a vowel except those in -au, which, like those in a consonant, form the vocative like the nominative; 17 the nominative accusative dual is -a instead of -au ore; the ablative and genitive dual are -ão and the locative dual -yo, in which ā and y seem to be case and o number,

The ablative dual maintains itself better than in Sanskrit, in which it is merged in the general idea of dual proximity, -byam. The locative plural ends in -va more usually than in -u, i.e., in -sva or -hva rather than in -su.

1

The nominative plural of masculine a- stems ends in -ãoǹhō, which corresponds to the Vedic -āsas;1 that of neuter a- stems adds nothing to the stem.

51. The degrees of comparison of adjectives and the pronouns correspond to those of Sanskrit.2 The former, tara, těma, are attached to the nominative ending;3 i.e., have s originally before them.

4

5

52. The verb in Zend differs notably from the Sanskrit verb in having, besides the potential, another ideal mood, which may be called subjunctive, though not always used subjunctively. It is formed from the conjugational stem, and also sometimes from the perfect and the aorist, by inserting a before the person ending; and with the conjugational stem it may take the person endings of the present or those of the imperfect. The difference seems to be that in the former the subject is thought as the present subject of the probability, and in the latter as the probable or ideal subject of the probable event. The ideal or uncertain nature of the event denoted by a seems to be thought as what is protracted or postponed, because possibly never to be realised. Yet it seems, at least with the present persons and the conjugational stem, to express what is expected, for it is the usual expression of the future, the future tense in its proper formation being little used.5 With the imperfect person of third singular it is chiefly used in an imperative sense."

The potential also in Zend is used in the perfect and aorist. Its formation as well as that of the precative is similar to Sanskrit. The precative is often used as an hypothetical, and occasionally in a strictly potential sense.

53. The ten conjugational stems are to be found in Zend as in Sanskrit, and are used not only in the present, imperfect, and imperative, but also in the present potential and present subjunctive, of which moods in most verbs no other tense is extant.7

Moreover, the affection of the verbal stem described in 16 is in Zend as in Sanskrit.7

54. There are also similar formations of derived verbs, passive, causal, denominative, desiderative, and intensive. In the intensive the whole root is generally repeated in Zend, but in the older Gatha dialect there is generally only reduplication of the first syllable with Guna of its vowel. The passive is sometimes expressed by the middle.8

55. The person endings are as follows: 9

1 Haug, p. 93–104. 4 Geiger, sect. 107.

7 Ibid. pp. 73, 74.

2 Ibid. pp. 89, 106-110.

5 Haug, p. 64.

8 Ibid. p. 60-62.

3 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 291. 6 Ibid. p. 65.

9 Ibid. p. 72; Geiger, sect. 112.