Those marked belong to the Gatha dialect. The imperfect is augmented with a-, but the augment is often omitted.1 The potential middle second singular person ending is sa, owing to the influence of i. The potential active second dual is tem. The person endings of the reduplicated perfect are: The reduplication is as in Sanskrit, except that the vowel is often long; sometimes it is dropped, and the vowel of the root lengthened for compensation.3 56. The aorist formations occur in the Gatha dialect oftener than in Zend, in which the s- formations are very scarce.* The two future formations of Sanskrit are to be met with in Zend in a few instances only. Now and then we find the sa- formation of the aorist used with the present persons for a future, of course without the augment. The present of bu to be, has a future significance; and even its imperfect in a shortened form, compounded with a participle, as perex'emno bwa, I shall be asking.5 57. The participles are similar to the Sanskrit.6 The infinitive mood is expressed in various ways. In the Gatha dialect, as in the Vedic language, it ends in Oyāi, dyāi, and anhē (asē), 1 Haug, p. 77. 4 Ibid. 79. p. 2 Ibid. p. 78. 5 Ibid. p. 82. 3 Ibid. p. 78, 81. In the usual Zend the dative which in their true nature are datives. of abstract nouns in -ti or -na is used for it.1 The gerunds of Sanskrit are not in Zend. But there is a declinable verbal adjective in -ya (37). 58. The prepositions are, as to their position, used very freely. If compounded with a verb they may be separated from it; often they are put twice, without the verb and with it. They can be placed before or after the noun, and are generally between the noun and an adjective or participle agreeing with it. They govern various cases, as in Greek and Latin.3 59. Composition seems to have been carried little, if at all, farther than in Greek, and to form words rather than syntactical combinations. The copulative or Dwandwa compounds are of comparatively rare occurrence. None of the compounds apparently have more than two components, and these are sometimes connected by ō.1 GREEK. 60. The Greek and Latin languages, being familiar to every scholar, no account will here be given of their structure, beyond what may be suggested by comparison with Sanskrit and Zend. The Greek phonesis differs from the Sanskrit in being more vocal, and in showing more activity and more muscular tension in the organs of speech in the mouth. The first of these differences appears in the greater development of vowels in Greek than in Sanskrit, and in the smaller development of consonants. For the greater attention to the vowels in Greek, and to the consonants in Sanskrit, led to discriminations in the use of these respectively in each language which did not exist in the other. Thus for Sanskrit a we find in Greek a, ɛ, or o; for Sanskrit ā, we find a, n, or w; for Sanskrit è we find a, &, or o; for Sanskrit āi we find a, n, or w; for Sanskrit ō we find au, su, or ou; for Sanskrit au we find av or nu; i and u correspond in both.5 On the other hand, Sanskrit distinguishes palatal consonants from post-palatals, and cerebrals or ante-palatals from dentals, while Greek makes neither of these distinctions. The preference of the vowel in Greek sometimes causes an initial s, followed by a vowel, to be 6 weakened to a spiritus asper, and s between vowels to be dropped; and often a vowel is prefixed or inserted to give more vowel sound in the formation of the word,7 while the semi-vowels y and w are apt to be vocalised or absorbed into vowels.8 The tendency to vowel utterance so encroached on semi-vowel utterance, that as a habit of speech this was lost, and y and w, when not vocalised, were either changed into other consonants or dropped. 1 Haug, p. 85. 3 Ibid. p. 113. 5 Curtius, Gr. Etym., p. 394. 8 Ibid. pp. 550-565, 591-597. For their change into vowels in those places where there was less tendency to utter them as consonants caused them to become consonants in those places where that tendency was greater, because they lost the associations of the softer utterance. The degree in which the semi-vowels would be hardened in such places would depend on the general hardness or softness of consonant utterance in the language (97, 101). The activity of the organs of speech in Greek is contrasted with the indolent utterance of Sanskrit in the definiteness and distinctness of enunciation in the former, and their versatility of action appears in their dispensing with so many of those euphonic changes which in the latter help to slur over the transitions of utterance and diminish the changes of action for which the organs are not ready. Such combinations as x, T in the beginning of a word show great readiness of change of utterance. And it was probably owing to greater force and tension of the organs of the mouth in the utterance that the tenues took the place of the tenuis aspirates, and that the surd aspirates %, 0, and 4 took the place of the medial aspirates g, d', b. The euphonic changes in the initials and finals of words in Sanskrit are increased by another cause which strongly distinguishes Sanskrit speech from Greek, the degree in which the words are run each one into the following. For if Sanskrit is remarkable amongst languages for this peculiar feature, Greek is equally remarkable for the distinctness with which the words are separated from each other. This is plainly indicated by the spiritus lenis; for its notation in writing shows that it must have been distinctly felt in speech as the beginning of the utterance of an initial vowel. And the accent, when it was on the last syllable, fell, to mark the end of the word, and distinguish it from the next word. When no word followed immediately the accent did not fall. 61. The laws of euphonic change in Greek are as follows. A tenuis, a medial, or an aspirate can be immediately preceded in a word by no other mute than a tenuis, a medial, or an aspirate respectively, probably because the vocal tendency of Greek speech led to a simplification of the mute concurrence by partial assimilation; x, 0, and, though latterly they became spirants, are in their origin aspirates,1 and are usually called so, and will be called so here. Aspirates do not begin successive syllables, probably because their repetition would offend the Greek definiteness of utterance; and to avoid this the first generally becomes tenuis. No mute except and x can immediately precede . M changes a preceding labial to u, a post-palatal to y, a dental to σ. N becomes labial (u) before a labial, post-palatal (7) before a postpalatal, is assimilated before λ, u, g, and is generally dropped before 。 and L. E between two liquids sometimes becomes a medial. 62. Greek has masculine nouns in -ās and -ns, as well as those in -05, which latter correspond to the masculine a- stems of Sanskrit, and they are all similarly declined, being related to Sanskrit (4) as follows. 1 Curtius, Gr. Etym., p. 416-418. VOL. II. K -1i(@) = 3 = = απ = Sans. ab'yām, -014 = = V= Their genitive singular ou is contracted from -ão = -ā(01)0, -εw = -n(01)0, -010 = 0(0)10, Sans. -asya. Dative singular -a(a) -n= -wi(a) Sans. -āya. Accusative singular - Sans. -m. Nominative accusative dual-α = αɛ, -w = 0%, % = Zend ǎ (50). Genitive dative dual -α = -α(Þ)ı(ā) v •($)(ā), m, the Greek genitive in the dual being the same as the dative. Nominative plural -α = a1(85), -01 = 01(85) (9). Genitive plural -v = -awv = a(o)wv, -wv = o(a) (13). Dative plural -as = a101 = a($)101(1), φισιν b'yasam, from which Sans. b'yas, -015 = 0101 = 0(4)101(v) (12). Accusative plural -ãs = a(1)s, -ous = ovs (143). The difference between the nouns in -as and those in 7s is confined to the singular. There are some old locatives in -of The nominative and accusative singular of the neuter o- stem takes the quiescent nasal, and -ov = Sans. -am. In the plural the final vowel of the stem is heavier, being expressive of an aggregate (14); and a represents Sans. -āni. = = Sans. e, as oxo, at home. = Greek has feminine nouns in ă, as well as in 7, and in -a after g or a vowel. Their genitive -ns (ai)ns, ñs = (ni)ns, -as (ā)ās, = Sans. -āyās. Dative - = (ai)n, -ñ = (ni)n, -= (ā), = Sans. ayai. Accusative -ǎv, -nv, -āv = Sans. -ām. Dual and plural the same as the preceding. The remaining nouns have genitive -05 Sans. as, dative - Sans. è reduced by loss of a, i.e. (a); accusative -a or -v= Sans. -am, curtailed of m in the former. Nominative accusative dual -ɛ = Zend -ă (50). Genitive dative dual -ow = Sans. -abyām; nominative plural - = Sans. -as; genitive plural -WV = Sans. -ām; dative plural -6, -8001 ( being inserted after a consonant) = pro(v), Sans. b'yasam (12); such forms as vex would suggest an original abʻyasam (111); accusative plural -as Sans. -as. The nominative, accusative singular of neuters is the stem; in the plural a is added to the stem to make it heavier as an aggregate. = Stems not neuter which end in a consonant generally distinguish the nominative singular either by takings or by lengthening the vowel of the last syllable. Stems ending in drop it before the case endings. The vocative singular of Greek nouns is generally the bare stem, except that of neuters, in -ov, and of stems ending in a consonant which is not allowed at the end of a word, both which form the vocative like the nominative. 63. Adjectives whose stem in the masculine and neuter ends in a generally make the feminine stem end in - or -a. Those in - and -v, and μλav and raλav, make it end in -a, whose tends to precede a final consonant of the stem, or to be absorbed in the conversion of dentals to sibilants. Stems which end in a consonant, before which the vowel is lengthened in the nominative, masculine, and feminine, have no feminine form. Others have no feminine form, being compounds or derivatives which are less simple in idea, and consequently less capable of a strong sense of the noun. The endings of the degrees of comparison -wv, -16705 Sans. -īyans -ista, -εoregos, -εoraros = iyastara iyastata (82). 64. The first personal pronoun as subject is iya, ywv Sans. aham. The second is où, rù, rún = Sans. twam. The objective stem of the = former in the singular is us, μo, Sans. ma, of the latter of, r, 60, Sans, twa, the w being dropped ; and μɛ, σɛ, being themselves objective, need no case ending for the accusative. The first person also prefixes to, according to Greek habit, perhaps to make the beginning of the word more distinct (60). The Epic genitive of the second person, roo, is remarkable, for it shows the stem as reo, for w; but reov = T8010 = To(), and the form TEOUS = TEO'(0)105, gives the full ending -syas (9). The datives iv, tetv, are also remarkable as preserving the nasal of byam. The stem of the dual is w= Sans. nau, and opw, in which comes from v; their old cases were vi, võiv, odãi, odãiv. The stems of the plural correspond to those of the oblique cases in Sanskrit, the nominative having an ending of the masculine a-stems (9). 65. The ten conjugational stems of the verb (15) are to be found in Greek. Bopp gives the following as examples of them: (1.) λEITO, psyw; but in these the Guna is not limited to the present and imperfect; 2 and 3 almost confined to roots ending in a vowel, ɛiμı, φημι, ἵστημι, τίθημι, δίδωμι ; (4.) βάλλω (βαλίω), πάλλω, άλλομαι, πράσσω, φρίσσω, λίσσομαι, βύζω, βλύζω, βρίζω, σχίζω; (5.) τίννυμι, ζέννυμι, ζώννυμι, ξώννυμι, στρώννυμι, χρώννυμι ; (6.) γλίχομαι; (7 and 9.) λαμβάνω, λιμπάνω, μανθάνω, the first nasal belonging to the seventh conjugation, and the second to the ninth transposed ; (8.) τάνυμαι, ἄνυμι, γάνυμαι; (9.) δάμνημι, πέρνημι ; (10.) -αζω, -αω, -εω, -σω; 1 but some of these are only denominative. There are also stems in -σκω, ήβάσκω, βιβρώσκω, wow. Some verbs also in Greek strengthen the root within the present and imperfect, as τύπτω, τίκτω. With regard to their inflection, the Greek verbs are divided into those in w and those in i. To the former belong all verbs which in forming their stem add to the root , or a syllable ending in €, which before a nasal generally becomes o, and corresponds to Sanskrit a. To the latter belong all other verbs.2 66. The affection of the verb described in 16, so far as it concerns verbs of the third conjugation in Sanskrit, may be traced in the present and imperfect of verbs in, which have a long vowel before the persons in the singular, but not in the dual and plural. This, however, is not to be observed in the imperative, which in Greek is probably thought more in the accomplishment and less in the subject than in Sanskrit. The vowel which corresponds to Sanskrit a before the person endings is not lengthened as in Sanskrit before the first person, as if there was not the same sense of the subjectivity of self above that of other persons. And there seems to be a tendency in the subjective affection of the person to be absorbed into the verb, and the person to be less fully thought than in Sanskrit. Hence there is less distinction than in Sanskrit between the person endings of the present and those of the past. The final expressing present engagement of the persons is to be found in the singular of the present in verbs in -, except in the second person, whose element sufficiently expresses the person as subject, whereas is the objective element of 2 Ibid. sect. 494. 1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 109a. |