πόσιμος drinkable, ἀγχονιμαῖος by strangling; θαρσαλέος courageous, ἐτήσιος yearly; δημόσιος, μηκεδανὸς tall, πευκεδανός keen, σιδηρίτης, σιδης στις (-ιδ) of iron, κους ίδιος, μοιςίδιος πετρήσεις stony, ανεμόεις windy, (-Fev, Sanskrit -vant, 35); Gentile, -òs, 105, -010s, -xòs, -vos, -rns; from prepositions, περισσὸς, ἔπισσος, μέτα σσος ; from adjectives, ήδυμος, νήδυμος, νεόκοτος, αλλόκοτος, νηπίαχος, μοναχός, μονάς (-αδ). 78. There is great facility of composition in Greek, but there is nothing like those coalitions of words forming a member of a sentence which are so frequent in Sanskrit. The Greek compounds are words forming part of the vocabulary of the language, and they consist of two components. The Sanskrit compounds arise from the prevailing interest of the whole fact, which combines the members; the Greek from the interest of the members leading to a fulness in conceiving them. The verbs compound only with prepositions; and the combination is so loose that the augment generally intervenes. This shows that in thinking them the mind passes from one component to the other, instead of spreading into the second without leaving the first. In the Greek compounds, there is usually a connective element between the two components. If the first component be verbal, the connective element is 0, 0, 0, 60, , o, or, unless the second begins with a vowel, for then the connective is absorbed or reduced to ; if the first component be nominal the connective element is o or subjoined to its root, or the formative element of the nominal stem acts as a connective. The former connectives are abstract verbal elements, the latter pronominal. The lengthening of an initial vowel of a nominal stem after an adverb compounded with it is probably expressive of a verbal element of thought which is too light to produce a distinct vowel. 79. The acute accent in Greek may affect either a long or short vowel, including under that term a diphthong, the circumflex only a vowel long by nature. The former cannot go farther back than the antepenult, nor the circumflex than the penult; but the last syllable generally counts for two in reference to an acute accent, if it be in itself long by the nature of its vowel, or by its ending in concurrent consonants, and in reference to a circumflex if it be long by the nature of its vowel. The inflections at the end of words are strongly thought so as to suggest strong volitions of utterance, and if a syllable be long it requires a stronger volition, and in proportion to the strength of the volition of utterance of a syllable it tends to draw towards it that point in the word where the sense of volition of utterance of the word is a maximum (Def. 27). In applying the above rule, a and or at the end of a word are not considered long except in the third singular optative; doubtless in consequence of a comparative lightness in the element of thought which they express. But the accents do not always go back as far as they might. Thus in the participles of the second aorist active, of the first and second aorist passive, and of the perfect active, the strength of significance of the participial syllable compared with the preceding syllables attracts the accent. And in general the accent is drawn towards the end, either by the strength of the end, or by the beginning being weak because it does not involve a sufficient sense of the whole word owing to deficient unity in the word. If the penultimate be long by nature and have the accent, it is the circumflex, but a long ultimate may have either accent; perhaps the accent is stronger, because there is more sense of the entire word in the former than in the latter. LATIN. 80. Latin is less vocal than Greek, though it has a similar development of vowels, whose correspondences to the Sanskrit vowels are much the same as those of the Greek. Diphthongs are less frequent in Latin than Greek. And there is not the same tendency to prefix and insert vowels, or to absorb consonants into vowels; but, on the contrary, the vowels are apt to be reduced when a word is increased by composition or reduplication, as abjicio conculco cecini, which close the radical a to i or u. Mute consonants also, which are never at the end of a Greek word, are frequent as finals in Latin; and particles, prepositions, and inflections are apt to drop a final vowel or shorten a long vowel before a final consonant.2 There is less muscular tension, more softness of utterance, in Latin than in Greek; h is softer than x, to which as an initial it corresponds, and m than μ or v, for m final or h initial does not save the last vowel of a word from elision in verse; r often represents an original s; and the want of and , which are uttered with more compression than h, f, or v, seems to indicate less muscular tension than in Greek. There is also less versatility or ready change of utterance. The following concurrences in the beginning of a word, which are all in Greek, are unknown in Latin-bd, dr except in foreign words, dn, tl, mn, pn, pt, tm, kt, km, sm, kn except in Cneus, and the mixed consonants x and ps. Still more remarkable are the restrictions within a word, for there the utterance of concurrent consonants is facilitated by the division of syllables; yet within an uncompounded word many of the concurrences which might be regarded as the easiest, consisting of a mute and a liquid, are almost unknown. Thus dr seems to occur within such a word only in quadrans, dodrans, and the derivatives of quadr-, as quadrus, quadraginta, &c.; gl seldom or never except in foreign words; cl perhaps only in Cocles, and such poetic forms as poclum, saeclum; ld only in valde for valide, and caldus for calidus; bl only in Publius Publilius; cn, pn, dm, dn, tm, tn, tl, not at all. It is strangely in contrast with these restrictions, that in the end of a word Latin has greater freedom in the use of consonants and of consonant concurrence than any of the ancient languages akin to it, as amat, amant, arx, lanx, nec, ars mons.3 Now, in the beginning or middle of a word utterance is stronger 1 In the proportion of one to six, according to Förstemann, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, 171. i. p. Benary, ibid. i. p. 52. Benary, ibid. i. p. 51. PLURAL. SINGULAR. than at the end, and therefore the transitions of utterance require more versatility because the changes of action are greater. A mute followed by another consonant needs prompt change of action, because it is a momentary utterance; but r was lightly uttered, and consequently required less new action; mn in the beginning and Id required quick change of utterance to make the transition distinct between two consonants so like to each other, so that the above restrictions of concurrent consonants in the beginning and middle of words seem to be the effect of deficient versatility in the organs of speech. In the end of a word the force of utterance declines, and there consonants may concur without requiring such versatility, because utterance is weaker and less distinct. Their concurrence, however, shows a more versatile utterance than Sanskrit, a less vocal, more consonantal speech than Greek. Latin uses surd spirants for the medial aspirates of Sanskrit, but within a word a medial is apt to be used instead of the spirant by reason of the sonancy of the word, and the tendency to soft utterance. Being less vocal than Greek, and softer in its consonant utterance (60), Latin is more tolerant of the semi-vowels y, v, and w, as abiete, when pronounced abyete, tenuis when pronounced tenwis; qu is qw. It is probably owing to greater force of breath from the chest that Latin often has q or c where Greek has 7. In such words there originally stood qw, and as Greek gave up the w, the guttural needed more breath from the chest to utter it (see V. 75) than belonged to Greek speech, for it was not k, but q. The pronunciation consequently passed from the throat, and w tended towards its labial closure, and the q became p. In Latin, on the other hand, the guttural remained even when the w was given up. 81. The case endings of the Latin noun, compared with the older forms, are as follow: The vocative singular is like the nominative except when this ends in -us, the vocative being then the bare stem, whose final vowel has enough life except for deus. The Sanskrit vocative takes up an element of life more than the Greek, the Latin more than either. The Oscan ablative singular in all the declensions ended in d1 (50). Stems in i are apt to follow the analogy of consonant stems, and make the accusative singular in em instead of im; less frequently they form the ablative singular in e instead of i. Many of them have lost the i as neuters in e, ar, al, some of which originally belonged to adjectives in is, ris, lis. Adjectives whose stem has not, but ends in a consonant, show a tendency to follow the analogy of those which have -i in consequence of its prevalence in adjective stems. Thus adjectives in -ans and -ens when used as adjectives form the ablative in i, but when used as substantives or as participles prefer -e. They always take i before the case ending in the genitive plural, and in the nominative accusative plural neuter. Substantives whose stems end in two consonants tend also to take i, perhaps because they originally took it in the nominative singular to sound s, as mons, monts, originally montis. Of the stems in u, all but a dozen follow the stems in i and in consonants, and make the dative and ablative plural in -ibus instead of -ubus. The demonstrative pronouns and the adjectives unus, totus, solus, ullus, nullus, uter, neuter, alter, alius, form the genitive singular in -ius, and dative in i for all genders. These have less sense of their substantive than is possessed by adjectives in general; for they are either of a singling or a pronominal nature, and do not involve a comparison of their substantive with others of the same name (Def. 6) so as to emphasise the thought of it in distinction from them, but rather direct attention to it alone (Def. 7). Hence the genitive and dative endings overpower the final vowel of the stem corresponding to Sanskrit a, which expresses the sense of substance (8); and the former has the fuller form corresponding to an older yas (9). The nominative and accusative endings are lighter, and consequently tend less to curtail the stem (14), and the old ablative being formed with d preserved the final vowel because it needed it for a connective. 82. The endings of the degrees of comparison of adjectives in the Indo-European languages have a strong affinity with the endings of the ordinal numbers, and these illustrate the significance of the former. In Sanskrit, dwi tiya second, and tritiya third, are thought with a sense of increase like the comparative degree iyans, but k'aturta, fourth, singles out more specially, because from a larger number, the last individual reckoned, denoting it with a demonstrative element ta. In pankama, fifth, there is a stronger sense of five as a combined aggregate, and the individual that completes the aggregate is denoted by ma (13). The strong aggregation of five diminishes that of six, so that sas ta, sixth, goes back to the demonstrative ending, but the higher numbers take ma. Now these ordinal endings ta and ma 2 Zumpt's Latin Gram., p. 53. 1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 181. belong also to the superlative endings, and in that use express a similar idea, denoting the individual which completes the process of increase. The process of increase itself, originally, it would appear, expressed by iyans (9), may denote the comparative degree as in Sanskrit, whence -wv, Latin ior; but it expresses this more distinctly with an addition iyãstara, whence Sanskrit -tara, Zend -stara, and Greek -έστερος, -ίστερος, -ώτερος (penultimate of positive being generally short), regos. And when this element iyas or iyas tar, or dropping r, iyasta, takes, like a cardinal number, the ordinal endings ta and ma, it gives for superlative endings iyas'ta or iyas'tama, whence Sanskrit -ista, -tama, Zend stema, Greek -έστατος, -ίστατος, -ώτατος, -τατος, Latin -essimus, -simus, -timus. The Latin comparative makes its neuter -ius like Sanskrit -īyas. 83. The personal pronouns correspond generally to Sanskrit. The genitive plural, nostrum, vestrum, involves a genitive element tr, akin to tris, &c., the formative of adjectives, and the um of the genitive plural (13). The demonstrative hi, which is analogous to the relative qui, is strengthened with c, an abbreviation of ce. The neuter is expressed by d, analogous to Sanskrit, which, however, affects the root; but in hic the d is displaced by c. 84. The conjugational element in the Latin verb differs from the conjugational element of the Sanskrit verb in being less limited to the present, and in being thought with less fulness of particularity. It is the process of accomplishment rather than that of the being or doing of the subject that it expresses, for it belongs to the parts in which accomplishment is not complete, the future, the infinitive, and the gerund, as well as to the present and imperfect; whereas the perfect tenses and the nominal formations in -t- which think the accomplishment in its totality have not properly the conjugational element. This being the nature of that element, it is brought out less strongly by the present experience of the subject. In most verbs of the first conjugation the a has become part of the stem so as not only to pervade the verb, but also to be carried into the derived nouns, but in a dozen verbs like sono, sonui, sonitum, the a is confined to the parts of incomplete accomplishment. The second conjugation, which corresponds to Sanskrit fourth, retains enough conjugational movement in the perfect tenses and the t formations to form both |