223 becomes t.1 From the same cause also e, when followed by k or i, Hence also a concurrence of t or d with t, d, l, or sometimes k after it, is eased by changing the first to s; d before m also may become s; and s, or if k, g precede, s is used as a medium of transition to t, n, or m, s to k or g, z to d6 (176). 179. After every short vowel the consonant sounds to a German ear as if it was double. This is an interesting observation, for it throws light on the phonesis of Danish and the other Norse languages, which, like Lithuanian, show marks of Finnish influence (140). The apparent doubling of the consonant arises from the Finnish strength of vowel utterance, together with the little breath which the consonants involve; in consequence of these two peculiarities the consonant is felt strongly as an interruption to the breath, unless the interruption is weakened by the vowel being long. It stops the breath of the vowel without sending it through the closure, and is felt consequently as a more complete interruption. In both the dialects of Lithuanian, but much more in the northern than in the southern, a tendency may be observed to shorten the final syllable. This is what might be expected from the greater proximity of the former to the Hyperborean languages of Europe which show the same tendency (IV. 125). It would naturally arise from a weakness in the volition to carry expression through, which probably And in causes the weak pressure of breath from the chest (Def. 25). consequence of it short i and u at the end of a word are apt to be uttered carelessly like e and 0.9 It is also probably due to the failure of expression at the end of a word that a medial there loses its sonancy and is pronounced tenuis though it is written medial. 10 And it is to be observed that Finnish also excludes the medial from the end of a word (IV. 147). 12 11 The accent in Low Lithuanian tends back to the stem i1 (IV. 154). 180. The Lithuanian roots are to a remarkable extent capable of expressing, by changes of the radical vowel, changes of the radical signification. This is an approach to the internal vowel changes of Syro-Arabian words. But it is only an approach; for it is the expression only of modifications of the radical element; whereas the Syro-Arabian changes express modifications of the verbal or nominal 2 Ibid. sect. 5. 3. 5 Ibid. sect. 5. 6. 3 Ibid. sect. 13. 2. 6 Ibid. sect. 23. 9 Ibid. sect. 5. 6. 8. 12 Ibid. sects. 17-20. stem, including those of mood, tense, and voice in the former. The groups of Lithuanian roots through which runs a common element, along with a strengthening or weakening or other change of the vowel to determine the common element to the expression of a special radical idea, indicate a strong sense of the common element and of its modification in each root, which implies a largeness in the thought of the radical element (218). And this corresponds with the comparative slowness of thought in the northern races of the Indo-European family (Part I., Sect. VI.); so as strongly to confirm the theory laid down in Book I., chap. i. Yet Lithuanian retains the characteristic structure of the IndoEuropean words; for every word in the language is formed with additions to the root unless where these have been lost by later curtailments.1 181. There is a full supply of Indo-European suffixes forming nominal stems, and a suffix is always attached to the root to form the stem of a noun.2 With the stem suffix a there is generally a strengthening of the radical vowel, at least not a weakening of it.3 4 The suffix -u forms only masculines; -yu also forms masculines, abstracts, or agents,5 and -tu masculines; -ōka forms adjectives = German -lich.7 182. Compound nominal stems all take the stem suffix -ya whatever be the original suffix of the second component, except the compounds with the negative ne-. The first member gives up its ending if it be -a, -i, or -ia, but -u is retained. Sometimes a composition vowel -a-, -ō-, -ī-, is inserted between the two components and accented, but only in compounds of substantive with substantive. When a preposition is the first component, its vowel, if not long, is lengthened or strengthened, but a is long or short according as it has the accent or not.8 A verb already compounded with a preposition may sometimes compound with a second preposition. The meaning of the verb is in most cases essentially, often very strongly, modified by the preposition. Not rarely the verb is compounded with a preposition to change its process into completion. Especially often is pa- (Ger. be-) thus used, but also nu- (Ger. herab) and others. Of such verbs of completion as well as of others, a present is formed. The preposition per- through, takes the accent always. Disyllabic verbal forms of the verbs which join the infinitive ending immediately or with to the stem can throw the accent on the prefixed elements; the others never lose the accent by composition." When the radical vowel is long by nature or position in first singular present, the accent does not fall on the syllable preceding in composition (except pér), but if short it does. In preterite, which does not take y, the accent does not fall on component syllable (except pér), 1 Schleicher, sect. 30. 2 Ibid. sect. 41. 5 Ibid. sect. 44. 8 Ibid. sect. 57. 1. 3 Ibid. sect. 41. but is apt to do so when the preterite takes y, and accents the ending in the uncompounded verb.1 The suffix -pane denotes the wife, -áitis, -ā'tis, -úkas, -ï'tis, the son ; 'te, ike, the daughter, of the person denoted by the noun.2 183. The names of countries are feminine, and generally those of cities.3 The cardinal numerals 1 to 9 are adjectives and have a masculine and a feminine form; those for 11 to 19 are all formed with lika (déxa) subjoined to the cardinals with a composition vowel between, and have only one form; those for 10 to 90 are feminine nouns, but 10 and 20 are now indeclinable; that for 100 is masculine, that for 1000 feminine.4 Lithuanian distinguishes now only two genders, masculine and feminine.5 184. The table on next page shows the endings of the noun which are added to the root for stem, number, and case, and also the declension of the simple demonstrative. On comparing with Sanskrit (4) we observe that the old locative i has become e (179); a has become u in the dative singular of first and third declension, perhaps owing to a lost m = Sans. b; in the instrumental singular -u has probably taken the place of -ami, and in the fifth and sixth declension it is formed with -mi = Sans. b'ī; in the genitive singular ō seems to correspond to an original ā, having arisen in the first and third declensions from the decay of the inflection; -aus = Sans. ōs. The nominative plural first and third declension has i like Greek and Latin, and the accusative plural has u like Greek, owing to the dropped nasal. In the second declension ō corresponds to an original ā. In the locative plural, old writings have sometimes -sa, sometimes -se, the oldest have for the most part -su, which corresponds to Sanskrit. It seems probable that Lithuanian preserved the original ending of the locative plural sva (12), and that the v or u prevailed over the a till it was weakened in the first and third declension by being taken up by the stem ending, and that afterwards a was changed to e by the analogy of the singular. In the genitive plural -u Sanskrit -am, the nasal causes the change to u, as in the cases already mentioned, and in the nominative vocative singular, seventh declension. = The neuter singular of ta has i, which is probably decayed t. In the locative and dative singular masculine of ta the m is a remnant of sma (tamui is the old dative), but in the instrumental singular mi = b'i, and the preceding a is changed to us by m. The two cases of the dual are compounded with the second numeral, the nominative dual feminine, like the nominative plural masculine, being tea instead of tai. The genitive plural is used for the genitive dual in nouns and pro nouns. In the greatest part of Lithuania south of the Memel river the dual 1 Schleicher, sect. 57. 2. 4 Ibid. sect. 62. 7 Ibid. sect. 77, note. 2 Ibid. sect. 59. 5 Ibid. sect. 76. Ibid. sect. 60. 6 Ibid. sect. 78-89. 8 Ibid, sect. 77. 9 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 157. has gone out of use, probably owing to German influence; and in Northern Lithuania the locative of all numbers is expressed by the preposition in and the accusative; so that there is no locative dual extant.1 In the cases left vacant in the table the stems in -en and -er subjoin -i or -ya, and form the cases accordingly (206). This addition to the stem is probably pronominal, referring to the substance (Def. 4), which wants an act of attention directed to it in those stems whose endings belong rather to the attributive part of the idea to connect them with those case relations which are more strongly thought 2 (144). 185. The interrogative or indefinite pronoun kás, which in certain applications is also relative, is declined like tás, except that it has no feminine or neuter form, and is used only in the singular. It has a compound possessive keano', as well as the regular genitive kō'. Like tas are declined also ans (anas) that, katras which of two or three; also ya, third personal pronoun; sya this, kurya which, tokya talis, kokya qualis, except that in these the y occasions some euphonic changes and contractions.3 The substantive pats (patis) master, pati feminine, is used for self.1 And there are pronominal compounds, as in Greek and the other kindred languages. To the nominative singular masculine of the pronouns -ai is added for emphasis, as tasai, compare ourooi; and very frequent is the strengthening suffix -gi (-7). There was formerly an interrogative suffix -gu, but it is no longer used (cf. Finnish -ko, IV. 152); -yau, which by itself means already, Latin jam, is subjoined as a particle of identity, as tasyau, derselbe. And to ta, ana, sya, kurya, katra, and to ya itself, ya may be subjoined, both pronouns being declined." 186. The adjectives are declined pronominally, that is, by subjoining to the root in each case the same case of tas, if the stem ends in -a, of -yas if it end in -u, the former dropping t; except that those whose stem ends in -u make the nominative and accusative singular and nominative plural like substantives, -u maintaining itself by reason of its strength of significance. The instrumental singular has dropped -mi in the -a stems and generally in the -u stems, and the nominative plural of the -a stems ends in -i instead of ea; perhaps in both cases because the termination is weaker in the word of more than one syllable. In the nominative singular the adjectives form a neuter by dropping -8.7 The adjectives take a definite form by subjoining ya, both components being declined.8 The comparative of adjectives is formed by -éasn'is masculine, -éasn'ę feminine, the superlative by -yáusias masculine, -yáusi a feminine. The former is declined as adjectives with stem ending -ya, the latter as adjectives with stem ending -a, in which they makes some euphonic 1 Schleicher, sect. 76. 4 Ibid. sect. 91. 7 Ibid. sect. 88. 2 Ibid. sect. 87. 8 Ibid. sect. 95. Ibid. sects. 89, 90. |