The second numeral is often suffixed to nouns in the nominative dual. The particles pi, meaning by, na, n, meaning in, and link, meaning -wards, used to be suffixed to nouns. Some prepositions also may be used postpositionally.2 194. The neuter gender having been given up in the noun does not occur in the attributive adjective. But in the predicative adjective it is found when the subject is tai that, kás what, viskas all, or neaks nought, less frequently with the abstract subject, it. Disyllabic adjectives in -as become in this case adverbs in -ai, probably because they take up a stronger sense of the copula than those which are less simple. In ordinary discourse the feminine is often used for the neuter. An adjective is masculine when it belongs to nouns masculine and feminine connected by the copulative conjunction 3 (220). 195. The only article which Lithuanian has, is that which is suffixed to the adjective (186), except that in some parts of the country, owing to German influence, tás is used as a definite article, veans, one, as an indefinite. The article suffixed to the adjective particularises through the adjective, so that it is not a particular noun that is qualified, but the noun becomes particular by being qualified, and there is therefore an emphasis on the thought of the adjective. Adjectives used substantively, and not as neuter abstracts, take the suffixed article.* 196. The subject precedes the verb or predicate, the verb substantive being omitted with a predicative adjective.5 In such expressions as, they say, it rains, no subject is expressed." The attributive adjective precedes its substantive, sometimes with a genitive between. The active participles follow their substantive in books, but precede in popular language. The genitive may either precede or follow its governor. The possessive case of the personal pronouns usually precedes its governor, and has then almost no accent; in the older language it often follows, and in the songs more frequently, being then accented. Some prepositions are used also as postpositions, e.g., dēl because of, -pi by, -na in, -link -wards, are enclitic. There is considerable freedom of arrangement of the parts of a sentence. 197. The reflexive pronoun, which has only the singular form, is used not only with the third singular and plural subject, but also with the first and second singular, dual, and plural.' In the reflexive form of the verb, the reflexive element may be either direct or indirect object. In the former case the verb sometimes comes very near to a passive signification, and, especially in the older language, takes the place of a passive.10 The reflexive verb does not form the compound tenses with the verb to be, probably because its own signification is nearly a state of being, and the auxiliary verb would be tautology. But when it is compounded with a preposition, the reflexive element, which is put between the 1 Schleicher, sect. 120. 2. 4 Ibid. sects. 122, 123. 7 Ibid. sect. 129. 1. 9 Ibid. sect. 135. 3. VOL. II. 2 Ibid. sect. 133. 5 Ibid. sect. 124. 8 Ibid. sects. 133, 135. 2. 10 Ibid. sect. 137. 3 Ibid. sect. 121. 6 Ibid. sect. 123. Q preposition and the verb, may be taken as governed by the preposition, and the verb as active, and then the compound tenses may be formed.1 The passive is generally expressed by a passive participle and the verb to be, the participle agreeing with the subject in number and gender. 198. The present tense involves a strong sense of process or duration, and is very much used, because facts are thought so much in their process. This duration is more strongly expressed by prefixing be; with this prefix and the negative the meaning may be nevermore.2 The past tense is often used where we would use the present; because Lithuanian present has too much of the going on. The past tense has the signification of the Greek aorist, perfect, and imperfect. But the written language often expresses the perfect by the past participle and the present of the verb to be. In Northern Lithuania this latter has almost taken the place of the past tense.3 By the verb to be and a participle are expressed also the pluperfect, the past optative, and the future perfect.1 The future has such a sense of process as to express a future duration as well as a future occurrence. There is such a strong sense of process, along with a rather weak sense of position in time, that in the succession of one being or doing to another, the process of the consequent is sometimes thought as in a continuation of that of the antecedent, occupying a subsequent part of the same succession of time, its time being thought, not in relation to the time of the speaker as a past or present, subsequent to another past or present, but in relation to the time of the preceding realisation as a future 4 (V. 65). The verb has little subjectivity, and its process is process of accomplishment. The future is consequently sometimes almost a future perfect.4 199. The optative mood would be better called the ideal, for it expresses what may be, what is doubtful, or what is only said or thought, as well as a wish.5 An instrumental case of the infinitive is used before the same verb from which it is formed to strengthen the expression; and these constructions are negatived doubly by nei before the infinitive, and ne burn before the verb. Degté dega, with burning it burned, i.e., it burned bright (V. 66). There is also an intensifying construction of a noun or superlative governing its own or a kindred genitive plural.6 The supine was formerly used with verbs of motion, but now the infinitive.6 The participle in -damas is used only in the nominative." The participles and gerunds are used in preference to relative and dependent clauses; showing a weakness of subjectivity in the verb. The participle agrees with its subject, the gerund, which is a participial 1 Schleicher, sect. 136. Ibid. sect. 138. 3. 2 Ibid. sect. 138. 1. 7 Ibid. sect. 141. 3 Ibid. sect. 138. 2. 6 Ibid. sects. 129. 4, 140. 4. stem without case element, takes its subject in the dative, and states a condition of the fact.1 In negation the verb takes the negative ne-, and at the same time another member of the sentence may take it also.2 he went into the city 3 to king 200. Examples: (1.) Yi's yo ita meastă pas tā karaliu, he went into the city to the king; yo is third singular of preterite of eiti, to go (188); the nasalised endings are accusatives; on the I frightful dream dreamed article see 195. (2.) Az baisū sāpnã sapnavau, I dreamed a frightful dream; sapnavau is the first singular preterite of sapnuoti, to dream. he teaches me writing 4 (3.) Yi's mokina mane rasta, he teaches me writing; mokina is third singular present of the causative verb mokinu, I teach 5 (190, 12). (4.) new year healthy to continue grant us 6 Duk mums nauye metã sveaikems sulaukti, grant us to continue healthy during the new year; duk for duki is precative (191) of duoti to give; mums is dative plural of first personal pronoun; nauye metã accusative for time how long; sveikęams dative plural of sveikas healthy; sulaukti infinitive of sulauk, compound of su with, and he will bring beautiful little words and bitter little tears laukti to wait. (5.) Parnes graziu zodat u ir gailiu asarat u, he will bring beautiful little words and bitter little tears; parnes is third singular future, which is reduced to the verbal stem, compounded of par = Latin per, and nes bring; graziu is accusative plural of grazus, feminine grazi, gailiu of gailu (186); zodat u is genitive plural of zodatis, diminutive of zodis, asarat u of asaratis, the diminutive of asara, both formed with -atis, and declined as stems on thy help gen. relying work accus. ending in -ya. (6.) Ant tuvo pagalbos nusitikę dam's darbã I began pra de yau, relying on thy help I began the work ;7 pa- is a perfective prefix (182); nu- down is perfective; -si- is reflexive (191); for participle -damas see 192; pradeyau first singular preterite (190) it without half gulden gen. not sell of pradeti, pra forth, de put. (7.) Tai be pus auksinio ne par fut. 1st sing. duo si u, I will not sell it under a half gulden;7 auksinas is a gulden, derived from auksas gold, and when compounded with pus it takes ya for stem ending; parduoti, to sell, is compounded of par he such the shame himself did 8 through, and duo give. (8.) Yi's tok's tā gēdā pasidarę, one such as he has done himself the shame; pa is a perfective prefix (182); pasidarę is third singular preterite of pasidarī sich machen, perfective what through winter was sleep past part. out crept and reflexive. (9.) Kas per zeamă buvo meago y es is· lindo, what had slept through the winter crept out; zeama is the accusative, singular; buvo is third singular preterite of bu to be. (10.) Mass hold ger. he sleep pret. 3d sing. Mise be laik ant yis meago 1 Schleicher, sects. 142-144. 4 Ibid. sect. 125. 7 Ibid. sect. 132. 2. 9 yo, while they held Mass he slept; when out go fut. year pl. belaikant gerund, be expresses duration.' (11.) Kad is ei·s meta i and one fem. day then you become blind fut. 2d pl. ir veana deana tai yus ap yek sit, when a year and a day shall pass then ye shall become blind; 2 metai is plural because thought in its parts (193); tai is the neuter demonstrative; yek is why I the root, to which ap gives sense of becoming. (12.) Kur as sing daina fut. 1st sing. why merry fem. be fut. 1st sing. dainuo⚫ si kur linksma bu'si น u, why should I sing dainas he in go fut. into room accus. (folksong), why should I be merry?2 (13.) Yi's ei s τ stubã and robber dat. pl. he give fut. knowledge when all pl. o razbaininkams yis duo's zině kad visi su mig sleep past part. pl. г out of is be fut. room gen. then they bottom accus. pl. out knock opt. 3d pers. dar ir tã merga drauge imtu, he should enter into the room and give instruction to the robbers, when all should be asleep in the room; then they should knock the bottoms out of the vessels, and carry off everything; and going away they should, moreover, also bring the maiden along with them; sumig compounded of su with, and mig sleep; for optative third person see 191.3 SLAVONIC. 201. The Slavonic race, called Sarmatians by the Greeks and Romans, dwelt in early times north of the Black Sea and of the mouths of the Danube, where in the last half of the fourth century they were conquered by the Goths under Ermanric. Both were soon after overwhelmed by Tartar and Mongolian invaders, and the Slaves spread themselves west and north till they reached the Saal and Holstein, and south of the Danube into Illyricum. The Slavonic language includes many dialects, and these have been grouped into an eastern and a western division, called respectively Antian and Slavinian.4 The most eastern Slaves formed two states-a southern state about Kiev on the Dnieper, and a northern, about Novgorod and Lake Ilmen. The latter, which was the larger and more numerous, and was mixed with the adjacent races, was brought into subjection about the year 862 by Rurik and the Waryaga Russi, a Scandinavian tribe which had got this name from the Finns; and his successor, Oleg, conquered the southern state, and united the two. Vladimir (9801015) received Christianity from the Greeks, his capital being Kiev, which continued afterwards to be the principal seat of whatever ecclesiastical and secular knowledge existed in the country.5 Already a century before the conversion of Vladimir the Bible had been trans3 Ibid. sect. 139. 2 Ibid. sect. 138. 3. Ibid. p. 617-619. 1 Schleicher, sects. 136, 144. lated into the Slavonic language by two Greek monks-Constantine, who afterwards took the name of Cyril, and Methodius.1 The dialect into which this translation was made is thought to have been Old Servian,2 which belonged originally to the neighbourhood of the Upper Vistula and Eastern Gallicia. It has been in some degree modernised from time to time, and still continues to be the language of religion; up to the beginning of the eighteenth century it was the written language of all Russia. Bopp calls it Old Slavic; Miklosich calls it Old Slovenic; and under the name of Old Slavonic it will be taken here as the representative of Slavonic speech. น. 202. Old Slavonic differs from Lithuanian in having much weaker Vowel utterance. The original and u were generally reduced to shevas i and 5 The original a became e, sometimes 0.6 The original is represented by e, sometimes by a, original aa by o, original da by a. The originali tended to become i, the original u to become . The Sanskrit e, Guna of i, became before a vowel oy; before a consonant it is represented by è or i. There is no Slavonic representative of Sanskrit ai. The Sanskrit ō, Guna of u, is represented by u, or before a vowel ov; Sanskrit au, Vriddhi of u, by av before a vowel, va before a consonant.9 8 Slavonic e and o tend to become i and 6 น In the lengthening of the Slavonic vowels also for compensation of dropped sounds or other causes, there is a curtailment of vowel utterance; e indeed is lengthened to ē, i to i or to e, to u, but o is increased only to a, i and cannot bear the stress of utterance in the beginning of a word, but are lengthened to i and .5 Lithuanian tends to take y before an initial vowel of word or syllable (176), probably to give force to the vowel (Def. 26) in the strengthening of vowel utterance which was called forth by Finnish influence. In Old Slavonic something similar may be observed; probably an effort to help the weakness of vowel utterance. Thus is prefixed to initial e, and v to initial; 10 also seems to have had a broader and a narrower utterance, being broad always when initial, and the broad è seems to have always taken y to help it, being written ya, 11 and y or an ante-palatal, because it involves y, has a tendency to be followed by a, because it strengthens and broadens the weak vowel utterance; neither i nor i can be preceded by y.12 It is probably owing to the weakness of the vowels, that when they are initials there is a tendency to prefix consonants to them, not only y and v, but n also to take the stress of initial utterance. 13 Old Slavonic has no diphthong, but changes the i and u of the original diphthongs into y and v; 14 it also tends to contract concurrent vowels into a single vowel." The vocalic weakness of Slavonic is connected with a feature |