tives belonging to a noun, all or some or none may take its case and number. Sometimes the adjective and not the substantive has the case and number.1 The numerals are attributes of their substantive; but there are the two following deviations from concord. After the cardinal numbers above two the substantive is very apt to be in the ablative plural; often it is in the singular.2 The accusative prefix z is not repeated before a noun in apposition, nor is a preposition.2 A verb is plural when its subject is a noun of multitude, but a predicate may be singular with plural subject.3 The relative pronoun generally agrees with its antecedent in number, but very often it remains singular, especially if nominative or accusative, though the antecedent be plural. Sometimes the antecedent when a demonstrative pronoun is omitted, and the relative takes its case when it ought regularly to be in the accusative.1 The nominative is used absolutely where Latin uses the ablative and Greek the genitive, but the genitive also is used absolutely, and may be identical with the subject.“ The instrumental expresses also the relation with.7 The future tense is also used with an optative or potential significance, subjunctively after zi in order that, or imperatively both with the negative and without it. In these senses also the subjunctive is used, as well as hypothetically and interrogatively. The noun which is connected with the infinitive like a subject may sometimes instead of being in the genitive be in the nominative, i.e., in the reduced stem.9 The present and aorist participles are to be regarded as verbal adjectives.9 245. The Armenian language is doubtless a member of the IndoEuropean family, as may be seen in the formations of the stem of the verb, and in the person endings; but it is not easy to identify some of its forms with those of the other Indo-European languages. The twhich occurs so frequently in the Armenian forms is deduced by Bopp from Sanskrit y, and the k' of the plural from Sanskrit s, though he admits that it is only in the grammatical endings that these correspondences can be shown, 10 He argues with great force that in the Armenian subjunctive ť corresponds to y in the Sanskrit potential.11 The use and meaning, however, of the Armenian subjunctive correspond to the Zend subjunctive rather than to the Zend and Sanskrit potential (52, 244). And in order to maintain the correspondence between Armenian t and Sanskrit y, he has to deduce the Armenian aorist from the Sanskrit causative formation,12 and the genitive plural from the dative plural.13 The former is rather daring, and even the latter does not seem to be correct. For it appears rather that the genitive took the place of the dative, the latter still remaining in the singular in 1 Lauer, pp. 77, 78. 4 Ibid. pp. 79, 80. 7 Ibid. p. 87. 2 Ibid. pp. 78, 79. 5 Ibid. p. 80. 8 Ibid. pp. 92, 93. 10 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 216. 11 Ibid. i. p. 371. 13 Ibid. i. p. 425. 3 Ibid. p. 79. 9 Ibid. p. 95. those u stems which form their dative in -um. This is plainly in correspondence with the Indo-European dative ending, whose original b' readily becomes m (143, 184, 209), and it is very arbitrary to deduce it as Bopp does from the pronominal element. But if it is the genitive which has encroached on the dative, then the t' which is in both in the plural, as well as the t which some strong o stems have in the singular, probably came from s (plural sam) rather than from y. This is confirmed by the numeral for 6 wet, whose w Bopp accounts for by comparison with Zend ksvas, without noticing that the t of the former should correspond to s of the latter. If this be the true correspondence then the formative element of the aorist and future corresponds in Armenian to the s of the other languages, and the subjunctive formation is a slightly varied application of the same element, the conjugation vowel tending to be weakened before it with an infusion of i as from a reminiscence of the old potential. But then, on the other hand, k seems to correspond to s, not only in the plural of the noun and pronoun, but also in the person endings of the verb. Now s is not the only Indo-European plural ending. Masculine pronouns in Sanskrit, and the original a stems in Greek and Latin, prefer. The distinction of gender having been given up in Armenian, the masculine forms tended to prevail,2 for the masculine is the simple noun, the feminine is the special form which is called forth by the sense of gender; and the prevalence of one form for the plural in nouns and pronouns would lead to its adoption in the person endings also. The original Indo-European plural ending was probably syas or yas (9), having close affinity with the ending iyans of the comparative of adjectives; and y, from which came the plural ending i, is near akin to the gutturals. Accordingly the comparative ending in Armenian is guin, guni, which Bopp connects with Sanskrit guna, an element of kindred meaning indeed, and applied to express -plex, fold (Armenian -kin), but never used to express the comparative degree. It seems more probable that g of the comparative and of the plural both came from y or i by a hardening of the utterance, which would fall in with Armenian phonetic habits. For Armenian is remarkable for its distinction of hard and soft utterances, which is one of the causes of the fulness of its alphabet; and this distinction tends to make the hard utterances harder, and the soft ones softer, each being relieved from the associations of the other (97). An element used sometimes where it had a stress of meaning, and at other times in a weaker sense, tends to divide in such a language into distinct utterances. Thus the original y of the ending of the genitive singular (9) is represented in Armenian by y. And the s, which in the forms above mentioned is represented by t, remains in the accusative plural, and becomes y in the genitive of the pronouns, often in the second singular person ending, and in the third singular imperfect of the verb substantive, where it corresponds to radical s. The of the second personal pronoun Bopp rightly deduces from v, or rather w.4 1 Bopp, ii. p. 74. 2 Ibid. i. p. 471. 3 Ibid. ii. pp. 52, 53. The v or b of the instrumental corresponds to b in Skr. bis. The ablative tends to be formed on the dative, expressing from proximity; its è corresponds to Sanskrit -at, being lengthened by dropping t. The declension of the pronouns is strengthened with additional pronominal elements, but the m which occurs in their dative and ablative seems to belong rather to the dative ending than to sma. The of the first person dative singular probably comes from y (byam). The future, which is represented as formed on the first aorist by the addition of another t, is in truth the Indo-European formation with sy, the y being assimilated by the s and both hardened to t. In the first singular the double letter is divided by i, expressive of a sense of the active subjectivity of self, and by ai, expressive of the passive; in the other persons the first t is apt to become s (238). Those verbs which express the past without t express the future with a single ť. The 7 of the infinitive Bopp deduces from n, and -g of the participle from -la1 (214). The ordinal suffix -ord may possibly be akin to Sanskrit kyt in sakyt semel, and in -kṛtvas, the suffix of numeral adverbs (Gr. -xis). The suffix -erord of ordinals of 11 to 19 is formed on the genitive ending er (237); compare 13. BASK. 1. There yet remains to be studied the Bask language, which is European, but not Indo-European, and possesses a special interest of its own as a specimen of the languages spoken in Europe before it was overrun by the great conquering races of the Indo-European family. Bask is still spoken on both sides of the Western Pyrenees, in Biscay, Guipuzcoa, Alava, and Upper Navarre on the Spanish side, and in Lower Navarre, Labour, and Soule on the French side; only, however, in the country, and by the lower orders of the people. But the poorest Bask workman regards himself as equal in point of nobility to the richest estated lord.3 2. The Bask phonesis is vocalic, and wanting in versatility. It has k, k, g, t, t', t, t', d, p, p, b, ƒ, h, y, §, z, 8, z, l, r, 8, 1, n, n, m. By the grammarian Gèze is represented by kh; t by tt; t by tch; t by x; p by ph; b by b, which he says has a sound intermediate between b and v; s by ch, pronounced as in French; z by 8, which he says has a special sound approaching the French ch, and in some words a soft sound approaching French; s and z by z, which, he says, has generally the sound of French c before e or i, but in a small number of words the sound of French z; 1 by ll; n by ñ. He says that between vowels is scarcely uttered, and he gives in his alphabet rr, to be sounded as in French. 1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., iii. pp. 148, 309. 2 Adelung, Mithridates, ii. p. 12. VOL. II. 3 Ibid. ii. p. 11. S Van Eys says that there are two r's, a hard and a soft, and that ƒ is not properly a Bask letter. The Bask vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and they combine in ai, oi, au, eu, ia, in which combinations each of the vowels is fully sounded.1 The unversatile character of Bask utterance is shown by the wide prevalence of euphonic change. Thus final k, when followed by a suffix, is changed into t or y or dropped. Final becomes k. Initial h, when preceded by an agglutinated element, becomes k or y, or is dropped. N before a labial becomes m; s before s becomes t. R, as in the Asiatic nomadic languages, never begins a word, from want of supple utterance. Medials become tenues after sibilants, r, or vowels; tenues become medials after l, m, n.2 Hiatus is avoided by insertion of r between the vowels, which do not coalesce, but e and u before a or e are apt to form ia, ie. The vocalic character of Bask appears from the fulness of the utterance of the diphthongs and the limitations of the concurrent consonants. Thus t is dropped before k, n before k, l, r, t.2 3. There is no distinction of gender. The noun forms a plural only when it has the definite article, which is the suffix -a. To this the mark of the plural is subjoined, and is k. The noun has case endings and takes postpositions. The following, somewhat differently named, are given as the case endings in the Souletin dialect.3 The stem serves for subject to an intransitive verb, and also for accusative and vocative; -k denotes the agent whether as subject of an active transitive verb, or as Latin ablative governed by a passive verb.** The possessive ending is -en, in which n is perhaps a pronominal arthritic element (7); the genitive -ko; the partitive -ik. The dative endings are i to, -ra or -la movement towards, -rat or lat movement to completed; locative -n; ablative -tik from; instrumental -s (instrument, material, or condition). With ik the noun is thought generally; the meaning being (like French de) some in affirmative propositions, none in negative. When the noun is thought indefinitely, or in the plural, which is an indefinite conception, -ko and -tik, which express of and from, -ra and -rat, which express motion to, and -n, which expresses situation, require before them a pronominal element ta to complete the thought of them with that of an object, whereof, wherefrom, whereto, or whereon; this is supplied for -ko and -tik by the noun itself when taken definitely; but -n, -ra, and -rat, when attached to a definite noun, take before them a weaker element ia, and in all these cases the absence of ta defines the noun by rendering necessary a defined idea of it, and there is no need of the article.5 The language is unfavourable to concurrent consonants, and tends to avoid such concurrences by insertion of e or by dropping one of the consonants; -tik with -ta before it becomes tarik euphonically, because 1 Gèze, Gram. Basque, pp. 2, 3; Van Eys, p. 3. 2 Van Eys, pp. 3, 4. 3 Gèze, p. 7-10. 4 Van Eys, p. 45. 5 Gèze, p. 12-18. tatik would be too hard an utterance. Hiatus also is avoided by insertion of r. In the plural -ak is dropped, except in the stem form of nominative, accusative, and vocative, and e accented is taken instead; and in the dative, instead of -éi, which would involve a hiatus, the ending is -ér.1 Proper nouns, also common nouns taken in a special sense, and generally infinitives, differ in their declension from common nouns which have not the article, in that the element ta is used with them only in the locative case, and there only with the names of persons.2 They are so definite that they dispense with ta except in the locative, which involves the strongest sense of place, and with names of persons, which are less readily thought in that sense. The genitive in -en precedes the noun which governs it; as also does the noun with any other ending which determines another noun ; if there are several nouns in the same case, they may all or only the last take the ending; subject, verb, and object may take any order.3 When a substantive is preceded by a possessive pronoun, and when it is in apposition to another substantive, it takes the article.1 4. There are many postpositions subjoined to various cases of the noun. Those of them which govern the accusative, and are therefore subjoined to the stem, are scarcely to be distinguished from case endings. One of the case endings given above, namely tako, is also used as a postposition governing the genitive in -en like a noun, with the meaning for; ta expressing, as a pronoun, the attention directed to the reason or origin in or belonging to the genitive, to which the governing word is related (ko). Those postpositions which govern the genitive in -en have the nature of nouns rather than of pure elements of relation. But there are postpositions which govern datives, and others which govern the accusative or stem of the noun. The ending -ko may be subjoined to any case forming an adjective, which may be itself declined.5 5. When a substantive is qualified by an adjective, only one of them, the last in order, takes the case ending; but with the adjective oro all, the substantive, though it precedes, may take the case ending. The qualifying adjective follows the noun; and if there are several, the last only takes the case ending. The predicative adjective follows the subject, and is followed by the copula; but in negative propositions it follows the copula. The comparative degree of adjectives is formed with -ago; the superlative with -en. These are used also with adverbs and with nouns, giving the latter an adjectival or adverbial meaning.7 The following suffixes are used with the stems of substantives and adjectives, to small, -t'ar contemptible, -sar poor, -egi too, -se, -segi, a little too. 8 6. The cardinal numerals are: 1 bat, 2 bi, biga, 3 hirour, 4 laur, 5 bost, 6 zei, 7 saspi, 8 sortsi, 9 bederatsu, 10 hamar. 1 Gèze, p. 12-18. 4 Ibid. p. 24. 7 Ibid. p. 38-41. 2 Ibid. pp. 21, 24, 26. 3 Ibid. pp. 10, 25. 6 Ibid. p. 33-36. 5 Ibid. pp. 29, 30. 8 Ibid. p. 55. |