SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE.

[SECT. X.

as adjusted may be more exactly defined (Gram. Sk., VI. 11–13). This remarkable feature is not found elsewhere except in the most northern languages of Asia and Europe, the Samoiede (ibid. IV. 71) and the Lapponic (ibid. 157), where the difficulties of life require great skill in dealing with things; the distinctly lower sense of relation in American speech accounts for its absence from Eskimo. The penetrating adjustment of relation in Indo-European is shown also in its affecting not only the substantive, but the adjective as well. To the Indo-European case endings all other relations are fitted and are brought by them into adjustment with the noun; and this adjustment being sufficient to satisfy the care required in the application to the object, the relation precedes in its natural place. For the IndoEuropean is not so subject to his surroundings, as to have his use of objects and conditions determined quite by these.

In the distinct sense of relations Greek and Latin have a great superiority over Sanskrit. The scarcity of conjunctions in Sanskrit, and the rare use of prepositions except in composition (ibid. VI. 38, 42), betray an inferior distinctness in the thought of relations. For though, as shall be shown in the next chapter, a special influence affected Greek and Latin, which made them more general in all their parts, and thereby tended to reduce inflections and to increase the use of prepositions, this does not account for the greater use of conjunctions in Greek and Latin. The element of relation in Sanskrit, instead of being thought distinctly as transitional, tends to be used in combination with the antecedent in forming compound verbs which pass to their objects through the relation or with the consequent in forming adverbs which consist of a preposition and a substantive (ibid. 40). In the former use they express a particular aim, in the latter a particular application; in neither are they abstracted as generally applicable. This superior distinctness of relation, which probably always belonged to the Greek and Latin, corresponds to the superiority of these races in invention and discovery.

The greater number of case endings in Latin than in Greek corresponds to the genius of a race more immersed in practical use of substantive objects, and with a greater tendency in consequence to particular adjustments to objects.

In all the Indo-European languages, the case endings as well as other added elements acquired a peculiar nature as inflections from that unification of elements, which was due to abundant mental energy, according to chap. ii.

15. Bask has many postpositions, which are attached to the stem of the noun, some which govern datives, and some which are connected with the noun by what seems to be an arthritic element (Bask, 3, 4, 7). They have loose connection with the noun (ibid. 5), so that though there is considerable sense of relation, there is little skilful exactness of application,

And the inferiority of the language in this respect to the IndoEuropean, corresponds to the inferior progress of the race; bearing out the general agreement which has been traced in this section with the principles of Book I. chap. iii., 10.

SECT. XI.]

WEAK PRACTICAL AIM-SKILL.

XI.-Particularising elements are developed according as there is weak concentration of practical aim. The plural number in the noun is favoured by skill in use, and affects the objective part or substance of the noun. Interest in the nature of objects favours the dual number. Concrete fulness of substantive idea renders neces

sary auxiliaries in counting.

1. The American nations on the fertile lands about the lower course of the Mississippi found themselves surrounded by abundant natural production and large stock of game. Their instinct was to look out for what could be taken to supply their wants; and to do this required little skill. The productions of the soil and the animals that lived on it attracted their attention everywhere without presenting special aims to be particularly attended to, so that their practical interest was little concentrated on definite objects. And this want of definite concentration of the practical interest is accompanied in the language of the Choctaws, according to the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 11, by an amazing development of the article which follows the noun (Gram. Sk., II. 48, 49). For so general an interest in substantive objects accompanies the substantive idea, that in fixing his attention on an object, the Choctaw is conscious of withdrawing his attention, first from the generality of objects to an object having a certain nature by which it is designated, then from the generality of objects having that nature to one or more of them, and it may be to that particular one or more as distinguished from other individuals among them.

Now it is to be observed that this process of concentrating attention on a substantive object, which is felt as a process, because the practical interest in definite objects does not quite destroy those general interests from which attention is withdrawn, is felt also in Choctaw in thinking a fact; so that a verb also may be affected with an article after it, because there is a general interest in facts as in things accompanying the particular idea.

According to the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 12, the sense of the individuals in a plurality is weak when there is a want of that exactitude in the applications of action or use, which causes these to be thought with completeness up to their objects. This want exists in Choctaw. The verb bears little on the noun. And the only elements of relation in contact with the noun are faint traces of relation in the articles. Accordingly the substantive in that language has no plural form, nor even the third personal pronoun. The first and second persons have plurals on account of the strength of the several personalities, and the first has an inclusive plural and an exclusive, which will be considered in the next section.

But the only other plural in Choctaw is the adjective or verb which belongs to a plurality. This forms a plural sometimes by internal change (Gram. Sk., II. 49, 54); for it is to the individual that the attribute belongs, and in thinking it the sense of the individuals in the plurality is strengthened and taken up into the thought

WEAK PRACTICAL AIM-SKILL.

[SECT. XI.

of the adjective or verb. And there being little sense of substance in the noun (Def. 4), because there is little thought of it as in the relations of action, the manifold individuality is expressed by the inner plural, according to Book I., chap. iii., 12.

2. The Dakota also lived in a fertile region abounding in valuable production, where there was little need for skill in the application of action or use to substantive objects. Their verb consequently does not quite reach to the objects and conditions, nor do their elements of relation (Gram. Sk., II. 42, 43). And there being an habitual want of definiteness in concentrating the practical interest, the sense of things in general gives rise to a definite article and an indefinite or individualising article, both which follow the noun. The substantive forms no plural unless when it means a plurality of men, for it is only then that the interest of the individual is such as to give a sense of the manifold in the plural; this interest being stronger than in Choctaw, as the martial enterprise of the race is greater. The plural ending has weak union with the stem, so that in the persons of the verb, and the possessive affixes of the noun, the personal element precedes the verb or noun, and the plural element of the pronoun follows it. This looseness of connection of the plural element with the stem is usual in the American languages, and corresponds to the want of close application of the action to the object above mentioned. For this, according to Book I., chap. iii., 12, leads him to think the plurality after having thought the object in the singular.

In the first person, however, the plurality falls on the stem of the pronoun and alters it, self being undistinguished from the associated persons. And there is no difference between an inclusive and an exclusive first plural (Gram. Sk., II. 46).

In no other of the American languages studied in this work is there such want of definiteness in concentrating the practical interest on its objects as to produce a pure particularising or individualising article ; though in Selish (ibid. 66), Southern Sonoran (ibid. 77), and Otomi (ibid. 79), there is an article, which, however, is rather an arthritic (Def. 7) than a particularising element, connective with the fact rather than distinctive from the general.

3. In Eskimo the closeness of union of the case relations with the stem of the noun indicates the close application of action and use to its objects (preceding section, 7); and this develops, according to the principles of Book I., chap. iii., 12, a sense of the individuals, such as to require a different expression for duality when strongly thought from that which is given to plurality. The duality, however, needs to be emphatic in Eskimo, or it is not distinguished in expression from the plural. The close application also of action develops so strong a sense of the manifold substance that sometimes the attributive part of the idea is imperfectly thought, as when the plural of kayak expresses a kayak and its crew. In this case the kayak is only the principal individual in the plurality; and the mind omits to think the other individuals except in an abstract plurality including it and them (Gram. Sk., II. 12).

SECT. XI.]

WEAK PRACTICAL AIM-SKILL.

4. In Cree the verb is carried on in thought to the objects not closely, yet more than in either Choctaw or Dakota, as is manifest from the great development of elements expressing the energy of the agent exerted on the object of the action (ibid. 18). And accordingly, in agreement with Book I., chap. iii., 12, the noun both of the animate and inanimate has a plural ending (Gram. Sk., II. 37). It is remarkable that a noun of the animate, if possessed by the third person, takes the inanimate plural ending. The personality of the third person is so weak, the sense of life in it so low, compared with that of the first or second (ibid. 27), that possession by it, implying as it does subjection to it, reduces the sense of life to the level of the inanimate.

The plural ending in Cree is loosely connected with the stem both of the noun and of the personal pronoun, so that though the personal element of the first and second persons precedes the verb in the indicative, their plural element follows it, and when the personal affixes are attached to a noun as possessive, the personal element precedes the stem of the noun, and the plural element of the possessive follows it, the plural element of the noun following that of the pronoun (ibid. 37). The plural element of the pronoun, on account of its detachment, has not the connection with the verb or noun that the personal element has, and the latter connection having been established, the plural element follows, and the nominal stem when thus affected with possession is followed by its plural element. This detachment of the plurality corresponds to the small degree in which the hunter thinks the action on into close application to the object (preceding section, 8), according to Book I., chap. iii., 12.

5. In Yakama the case endings of the noun show that the applications of action or use are thought up to their objects, and the noun has a plural ending (ibid. 56).

In Selish the noun has no element of case, and the prepositions are very few (ibid. 61, 66). The verb is thought not exactly as passing to its objects, but rather as embracing them in its operation (ibid. 64, 65), so that there is no sense of application to them; and this being absent the sense of the substance, and also that of plurality, is weak. Only, according to Book I., chap. iii., 12, some nouns denoting animate objects have a plural prefix, others form a plural by internal change. It is remarkable that in Selish the plurality of the third plural possessive is taken up altogether into the noun, and reduplicates the vowel which precedes its last letter. This shows that the noun takes up a sense of its possessor as the Selish verb does of its object, and gets a plurality from the possessor as the verb does from the object.

In Pima also the noun has no element of case, and the words used as postpositions do not combine closely with the noun (Gram. Sk., II. 69). Though the verbal stem is thought in close connection with the objects and conditions, it is detached from the volition of the subject (ibid. 68), so that there is little designed application of action to its objects, and little interest in these as objects. Accordingly, the sense of the substance is weak (Def. 4), and the formation of the plural of nouns in

WEAK PRACTICAL AIM-SKILL.

[SECT. XI.

Pima is by internal change of the stem (Gram. Sk., II. 69), according to the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 12.

In Otomi the verb spreads into its object without any appearance of a sense of fitting application (Gram. Sk., II. 82), and the noun forms no plural (ibid. 79).

6. In Mexican, when the verb does not take up its object but pass to it, the sense of application of action or use falls short of its objects, so that there is a considerable arthritic development to connect the objects and conditions with the verb, and even with the elements of relation which may intervene between them and the verb (ibid. 84). There seems, however, to be a considerable number of elements of relation (ibid. 85); but great attention to the attributive nature of the noun (Def. 4), so that the sense of it as object is weak. In accordance with this imperfect sense of the application of action or use, only nouns expressive of the animate form a plural; and some of these form it by reduplication, some by merely dropping a subjoined element of particularity, as if, according to Book I., chap. iii., 12, the sense of the individual substance was weak. But others of them form it by changing the particular element which is suffixed to them, and which forms a remarkable feature of the Mexican language (Gram. Sk., II. 87).

The use of these particular or demonstrative elements in the formation of the Mexican noun shows the strength of concentrated attention with which the substantive object is thought; for they do not particularise that object as distinguishing it from a generality, nor are they arthritic. They express attention fixed on the object, and involve a sense of the attributive part of the idea of it, for they are not so abstract as to be the same for every noun (Introd. 3). They are sometimes dropped in the plural, for a plurality is indefinite compared with an individual. But more frequently they are changed in the plural for others of plural significance. Some of them are dropped when the noun takes possessive prefixes, because then the attention given to the substantive object is diminished, being partly taken up by the possessor. But sometimes the noun has to take an arthritic element instead of the element which it has dropped to connect it with the possessive. And on account of the concrete particularity with which the object is thought, the idea often is too full to be used as a unit in counting, and a part of the idea has to be taken instead (ibid. 87; V. 6), according to Book I., chap. iii., 12.

7. In Chiapaneca the action is imperfectly applied to its object, for the direct object has to be connected with the verb by a remarkably heavy arthritic element (Gram. Sk., IL. 90). And accordingly, only some nouns form a plural (ibid. 89).

In Quichée the action is not thought in close application to the object (ibid. 94). And only nouns expressive of the animate form a plural, the plural element being subjoined. But adjectives and pronouns belonging to a plurality of inanimate objects as well as of animate form a plural, because it is to the individual that they refer, and consequently they have more sense than the substantive of the