SECT. XV.]
STRENGTH OF PURPOSE.

summed up in its result; which would correspond with the persevering thoroughness of the race in carrying its work to completion.

Even in Chinese there is a tendency to the formation of compounds, and also to the summation of fact, as if from an interest in its total result (ibid. V. 5, 12), corresponding to the practical bent of the

race.

The differences which have been observed among the American languages in respect of synthetic construction seem to arise from the various degrees in which the races think fact in the result (ibid. II. 5, 64, 144).

Amongst the African languages the Kafir tends to synthesis in accordance with the practical genius of the race (ibid. I. 7).

And the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 15, agrees with the structure of language viewed in connection with the mental habits of the race so far as these can be made out.

XV.-Utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from

the chest corresponds to strength of purpose in the race, their hard and full utterance to laborious and active habits respectively, their unrestricted concurrence to versatility, their predominance over the vowels to thoughtfulness.

1. The phonesis of the African languages of the south and west is remarkable for the weak pressure of breath from the chest with which they are uttered (Gram. Sk., I. 8, 24, 35, 57; V. 141). And this mode of utterance, when affected with the indolence of the Hottentot, produced the clicks (ibid. 74). On the east of Africa a weak pressure of breath from the chest has been noted by Lepsius in Nubian, and may be observed also in Galla (ibid. III. 126, 161). And it seems to characterise more or less all African speech. Now the opposite character of utterance, with strong pressure of breath from the chest, prevails similarly in the languages of North America (ibid. II. 11, 44, 52, 57, 60, 68, 78), and is found in Kiriri in South America (ibid. 121). But in Guarani the pressure seems to be weak (ibid. 116).

Maori seems to have more pressure of breath than Hawaiian or Tahitian (ibid. III. 2).

The Dravidian phonesis has full pressure of breath from the chest (ibid. 92).

The Arabic has strong pressure (ibid. V. 50), Hebrew less strong (ibid. 75), Syriac stronger than Hebrew (ibid. 100), Ethiopic so weak that it approximates to the African (ibid. 120), and Amharic still weaker (ibid. 141).

Latin seems to have stronger pressure of breath from the chest than Greek (ibid. VI. 80), and Irish than British (ibid. 92, 107). Lithuanian and Slavonic have weak pressure (ibid. 175, 176, 203), apparently also Finnish (ibid. IV. 147), and certainly Samoiede (ibid. 66).

Now, the contrast between the African and the North American in 2 A

VOL. II.

STRENGTH OF PURPOSE.

[SECT. IV.

respect of this characteristic of utterance supports most strongly the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 16. For as the African races utter with less pressure of breath from the chest than any others, so they have also the least strength of purpose. While the native races of North America are surpassed by none in this quality, the New Zealander has more of it than the native of the Sandwich Islands or Tahiti. The Tamil is the most persevering race of Hindoos (Gram. Sk., III. 91). The Arab has great strength of purpose, as he has great need for it in traversing the desert. But the Hebrew had less need for it on the edge of the desert, the Syrian more scope than the Hebrew for persistent enterprise, as dwelling in a less secluded country. The Latin shows in history more persistence than the Greek. And the Irish have given more proof of it than the Welsh, in the persistence with which they have clung to their religion as well as to their nationality, and the strength of purpose with which they are recovering their position in their native land.

But one of the most remarkable phonetic facts in language is the development of pressure of breath from the chest which has taken place in the Teutonic languages, and produced the two successive changes in the mutes which are stated in Grimm's law (ibid. VI. 132). And there is no doubt that as all the Teutonic races have developed the first access of pressure from the chest in their utterance, so, in accordance with the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 16, they are all distinguished for strength of purpose among the nations of the world; and as the High Germans have developed also the second access of pressure, so they are remarkable above the rest for persistent perseverance.

But if a change of character was the cause of this change of utterance, how can we suppose it to have arisen? Now, if national character consist of the qualities which, under the circumstances of the nation, have given advantage in the struggle for life, any change in those circumstances which would alter the conditions of that struggle would tend to alter the character which would prevail. Such a change took place when the Roman Empire was consolidated in Europe, and the German tribes became aware of that great field for plunder, and of that mighty foe. A new value then became attached to persistent resolution in carrying an enterprise through. And how this influence moved Germany throughout may be seen in the great combination of the German nations which terrified the Romans in the reign of Marcus Antoninus, and which comprehended all nations of Germany, and some of Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Danube.1 This was towards the end of the period during which the first change of Teutonic utterance was accomplished, namely, the first two centuries of our era (Gram. Sk., VI. 132). For the change began as soon as the empire was established, and would tend to spread as a condition of success in the internal struggles of the German nations.

That the moving cause was the stimulus given to martial enterprise

1 Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. ix.

by the Roman Empire is confirmed by the fact that it was only amongst the High Germans, the nations nearest to the Roman provinces, that the second change took place about the seventh century. And this change did not spread, because the Roman Empire attracted High German enterprise away from internal wars in Germany.

2. The Tosa and Zulu language is distinguished by a softness of utterance due to a relaxed action of the organs of the mouth (Gram. Sk., I. 8). And it is very remarkable that the kindred language of the Bichuana is hard in its utterance compared with that of the Tosa and Zulu (ibid. 14). Now these latter are a much stronger, braver people than the Bichuana, whom Livingstone calls effeminate compared with them.1 He says that the country of the Kafirs or Zulus is well wooded, and its seaboard gorges clad with gigantic timber. "It is also comparatively well watered with streams and flowing rivers. The annual supply of rain is considerable, and the inhabitants are tall, muscular, and well made. They are shrewd, energetic, and brave. Altogether they merit the character given them by military authority of being magnificent savages." The country of the Bichuana "consists for the most part of extensive, slightly undulating plains. There are no lofty mountains, but few springs, and still fewer flowing streams. Rain is far from abundant, and droughts may be expected every few years. Without artificial irrigation no European grain can be raised, and the inhabitants, though evidently of the same stock originally with those already mentioned, and closely resembling them in being an agricultural as well as a pastoral people, are a comparatively timid race and inferior to the Kafirs in physical development." 2

It is natural that the stronger people should secure for themselves the better territory and should flourish there. But it is a striking fact that the brave and manly race have the soft utterance, the timid and effeminate race the hard utterance. The paradox, however, disappears when it is remembered that the latter have the harder life, are forced by their conditions to be more laborious, and naturally carry into their utterance the muscular tension to which they are habituated, according to the principles of Book I., chap. iii., 16.

A precisely similar difference of utterance distinguishes the language of the Cree south of Hudson's Bay from the same language as spoken by the Chippeway in their better country about the head waters of the Mississippi (Gram. Sk., II. 17), and also the language of the Yakut from that of the Turk (ibid. IV. 18). The insular Caraibs have a softer utterance than the continental (ibid. II. 100). The Eskimo has a hard utterance (ibid. 11). The Dakota and Choctaw in the fertile plains adjoining the Missouri and Mississippi have rather a soft utterance, or at least not hard (ibid. 44, 52). The Yakama, on the Columbia river east of the Cascade Mountains, have apparently a hard utterance; and the Selish, more to the north and higher up the Rocky Mountains, a harder (ibid. 57, 60). Chiapaneca in Central America has a soft utterance (ibid. 89), which cannot be

1 Livingstone, Missionary Travels, p. 32.

2 Ibid. p. 95.

said of the neighbouring languages of Mexico, Guatemala, or Yucatan (ibid. 91, 95). And it is remarkable that Chiapa is lower and less mountainous than these countries. Quichua, spoken in the mountains by the laborious Peruvians, is hard; Guarani, spoken in the fertile parts of the basins of the Amazon and Paraguay, is soft (ibid. 109, 116). The Chikitos live an easy life and have a soft utterance (ibid. 129). The other American languages studied in this work are not characterised as either hard or soft, for want of decisive information.

In the fertile plains of Southern India the Dravidian utterance is remarkable for its softness (ibid. III. 92); the Egyptian not so (ibid. 108), probably on account of Egyptian agriculture involving more labour than a partly pastoral life. But the Galla utterance is very soft, which corresponds with the conditions of the life of the race. For "they occupy vast and noble plains which are verdant almost all the year round and afford nourishment to immense herds of cattle " (ibid. 160, 161).

Buriat has softer utterance than Mongolian, as it belongs to a lower and less rigorous region around Lake Baikal, in which life is easier than in high Mongolia (ibid. IV. 46).

The northern languages of Asia and Europe have a soft utterance, the Samoiede (ibid. 66), the Ostiak (ibid. 100), the Tscheremissian and Lapponic (ibid. 125), and the Finnish (ibid. 147). There is in these regions little scope for useful labour; and where life can be sustained, it is sustained by cattle, fish, or game, with little labour.

Syriac utterance and Arabic were harder than Hebrew (ibid. V. 75, 100), as life was more laborious in the less fertile countries.

Greek utterance was harder than Sanskrit or Latin (ibid. VI. 60, 80), as the more rugged soil on which the Greek character was formed required harder labour than India or Italy.

Irish utterance was harder than British (ibid. 92, 107), as the wetter climate of Ireland made the conditions of life less favourable than those in England (see also chap. iv., 21). And High German was harder than the other Teutonic languages (Gram. Sk., VI. 139), as the highlands to which it belonged demanded more labour than the German lowland.

And so far as the various languages are decisively marked with a hard or a soft character, the co-existence of this character with a more or a less laborious life may be traced throughout them all, in accordance with the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 15.

But in action there is another factor besides intensity, namely, continuity. And in respect of this there are differences among the races of mankind which are quite independent of the former. For a race

may be active and like to be always engaged in action, though it be not laborious. It may be indolent though occasionally disposed for great exertion.

When activity is combined with a laborious habit, then, according to Book I., chap. iii., 16, utterance will be not only tense or hard, but also full throughout. But indolence leads to an imperfect utterance.

SECT. V.]

VERSATILITY OF ACTION.

The nomad races of Asia have an indolent utterance of this kind in those vowels which are called soft on account of their imperfect indecisive pronunciation (Gram. Sk., IV. 2). And the partial development of this feature corresponds to the life of those races.

The nomadic life in summer admits great interruptions to its inactivity when pastures have to be changed, and provision has to be made for the winter. But in the winter the inactivity must be continuous. These two parts of the nomad's life, when the difference between them is very great, seem to be distinct sources of ideas having respectively active and inactive associations, and expressed accordingly with a full or an imperfect utterance. For the division of words into those with hard or fully uttered vowels, and those with soft or imperfectly uttered vowels, is confined in its origin to that part of the world where the difference between summer and winter is extreme, where the July temperature is above 59°, and the January temperature is below 23° (ibid. 4, 67).

The Hottentot utterance seems to be marked with indolence (ibid. I. 74); and indolence is one of the most striking characteristics of the race.

An indolence of utterance appears in Hebrew compared with Arabic (ibid. V. 75); and the former was a less active race than the latter.

Irish utterance was indolent compared with British (ibid. 92, 107), which also corresponds to the respective characters of the races.

Lithuanian and Slavonic are characterised by an indolence of utterance which naturally belongs to those whose life was nomadic (ibid. 175, 204).

And in general, where indolence or activity characterises the utterance, in the same degree it is found in the life of the race, according to the principle of Book I., chap. iii., 16.

3. A further difference among races arises from the degree in which they have developed promptitude of volition for a new action. For it may be a necessary aptitude for the life of a race, that they should have slow volition for a new action, so as to be tenacious of an action once begun, or, on the contrary, versatility may be an advantage. And according to Book I., chap. iii., 16, tenacity should show itself in speech by want of facility in the transitions of utterance, leading to many restrictions on the immediate sequence of letters, versatility by unrestricted concurrence of different elements.

Now the former feature is to be observed in the nomad languages of Asia, in correspondence with the continuous sameness of their occupations; but less in Mongolian than in the Tartar languages (Gram. Sk., IV. 2, 35), just as the more scattered pastures of Mongolia (this chap., III. 4) brought more change into the life of the Mongol; and less in Turkish than in Yakut (ibid. 18), by reason of the larger sphere of various activity which the Turks have enjoyed.

A certain want of versatility seems to be observable also in the phonesis of Nubian (ibid. III. 126) and Kanuri (ibid. 172). As to the character of these races information is wanting.