religious influences proceeding from central Asia, now appears in an altered form, continues; but to the political complications of the age is added the opposition of the prophets to the false policy of the nation, and prophecy, enlarging its horizon in these stirring times, rises to a full and clear perception of the worldwide importance of the kingdom of God in Israel. The third period commences with the reformation under Josiah, which, after idolatry had reached its climax under Manasseh and Amon, was apparently the most thorough. This reformation was not, however, capable of effecting the revival of the deeply fallen people, and produced only an external conformity to the rites of religion. Even in earlier times, the prophets had been constrained to testify against a dead self-righteousness and an empty adherence to ceremonies; but an utter stagnation of vital religion, in which the priests as well as the people now participated, appears to be the characteristic phenomenon of the period; while, after the death of Josiah, not only did idolatry revive, but a fresh field was also opened, by the conflict between the decaying kingdom and the Chaldæan power, for the political agency of the prophets. This period closes with the fall of the state, and the carrying of the people to Babylon. During the first period we meet with no great representative of the prophetship,-Joel, who moreover belongs to a period free from idolatry, being the earliest who can be considered such. The ministry of Isaiah forms the focus of the second period; the chief prophet of the third is Jeremiah.

(1) The succession to the throne seems to have been generally determined according to the rights of primogeniture (2 Chron. xxi. 3), although exceptions occur. It is said of Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 21 sq.), that, after the precedent of David, he bestowed the throne upon the son of his favourite wife; and Jehoahaz, although the younger son of Josiah, was raised to the throne by the will of the people (2 Kings xxiii. 30). A regency may be assumed during the minority of a king. The Rabbinists appeal in this respect to Eccl. x. 16;

VOL. II.

and the position filled by Jehoiada the high priest with re spect to Joash was also of this nature, 2 Kings xii. 3 (§ 180) The queen-mother seems generally to have possessed much influence, for we find great respect shown her. The king bows himself before her (1 Kings ii. 19),-the queen-consort, on the contrary, falling down before the king, i. 16,—and she is called 7', queen, Kaт. è§. 1 Kings xv. 13; 2 Kings x. 13; Jer. xiii. 18, xxix. 2. Hence, on the accession of a king, the name of his mother is mentioned, 1 Kings xiv. 21, xv. 2, etc.

(2) Comp. G. Baur, der Prophet Amos erklärt, p. 27 sqq., etc. (3) Comp. Alting, Historia academiarum hebr. p. 243. (4) We meet with a confidential disciple in Baruch, the faithful companion of Jeremiah.

FIRST PERIOD.

FROM REHOBOAM TO AHAZ (975-741 B.C.).

§ 179.

Rehoboam to Jehoshaphat.

The history of Judah under the reign of its two first kings, Rehoboam and Abijam, or, as he is called in Chronicles, Abijah, offers little that is worthy of notice. External misfortunes were added to the internal declension promoted by the spread of idolatry, the Egyptian king Shishak (Sesonchis among Greek writers) penetrating as far as Jerusalem, in spite of the girdle of fortresses erected by Rehoboam (1 Kings xiv. 25 sqq.) (1). The victory gained over Jeroboam by Abijah (narrated 2 Chron. xiii.) (2) afforded no adequate compensation, nor does the slight extension of the kingdom by the three districts taken from the northern kingdom seem to have been permanent. Then fol lowed the first reformation under Asa (about 955 B.C.), to which the king was incited by the prophet Azariah the son of Oded, 2 Chron. xv. 1, after a victory over the Egypto-Ethiopian king Zerah (3), a reformation which was not able wholly to extirpate idolatry, because it did not succeed in penetrating into all its

lurking-places. At this time appeared also the prophet Hanani, who rebuked the king, because in his war with Baasha he allied himself with Damascus instead of depending on the Divine protection, but was imprisoned for his boldness. Jehoshaphat the son of Asa, one of the best rulers of the house of David, was still more zealous for the establishment of theocratic ordinances (914-889). He organized the administration of justice, xix. 5-11, in which a distinction was now for the first

דְּבַר and דְּבַר יְהוָה) time made between sacred and secular law

) (4). To promote religious knowledge among the people, a commission, consisting of five high officials, two priests, and nine Levites, was sent about the country with the book of the law to instruct the people, xvii. 7-9. There was undeniably in this respect a deficiency, which needed to be supplied, in the theocratic ordinances, the dissemination of religious knowledge among the people being chiefly carried on by oral family tradition (comp. § 105). The measures of Jehoshaphat, how ever, as we may infer from the narrative, did not aim at any permanent institution; and there is no ground for the view, entertained by many, that we have in them the rudiments of the synagogue. Hence it is easy to understand that, as soon as a king set them a bad example, the mass of the people relapsed into that worship of nature which is undoubtedly agreeable to the sensual inclinations of mankind. Under Jehoshaphat not only did the priesthood attain great influence, but the powerful prophets Jehu and Eliezer also exercised their office during his reign (5); the Levite Jahaziel also came forward, xx. 14, entirely in the manner of a prophet. The reign of Jehoshaphat was also prosperous externally. Special danger threatened the state through an attack of the Ammonites, Moabites, and other nations dwelling on the east. It was, however, frustrated by the discord and mutual destruction of the hostile troops. The Korahite Psalms xlvii. and xlviii. probably refer to this deliverance. The affinity, however, of Jehoshaphat with the northern kingdom was a fatal mistake.

(1) About this time the above-named (§ 170) prophet Shemaiah appeared, and exercised his powerful agency at Jerusalem.

(2) We find, with Ewald, an historical germ in 2 Chron. xiii., notwithstanding the exaggerated numbers.

(3) Azariah is also intended 2 Chron. xv. 18, where a prophet Oded appears only through a textual error.

(4) In 2 Chron. xix. 8-11, Jehoshaphat is said to have set up a supreme court at Jerusalem. Its organization corresponds with the injunction, Deut. xvii. 8 sqq. It was composed of Levites, priests, and heads of tribes, over whom were placed, according to ver. 10, the High priest and a secular judge, and it was instituted to give judgment (7) in all difficult cases which should be brought before it by the local courts. The president of this court was appointed according to the distinction between "matters of the Lord" and "matters of the king." It is not stated what cases belonged to the one and what to the other.

(5) Jehu the son of Hanani (2 Chron. xix. 2), already mentioned (§ 172) among the prophets who interposed in the northern kingdom, and Eliezer (xx. 37) both sternly condemned the alliance into which Jehoshaphat entered with the kings of Israel.

§ 180.

Jehoram to Jotham.

Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, one of the worst kings of Judah (1), was married to Athaliah, a daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and, ruled by her, he became a zealous promoter of the Phoenician idolatry, 2 Chron. xxi. 11 sq., 2 Kings viii. 18, now openly practised in Jerusalem, where a temple of Baal was erected; see xi. 18. His reign was also unfortunate externally. Edom fought for and gained its independence (comp. Jo. iii. 19), and became from this time, by reason of its mortal hatred towards its kindred nation, a most dangerous neighbour (comp. Amos i. 11 sq.). The Philistines and Arabians made. incursions into the country, and departed with considerable spoil

(comp. Jo. iii. 4 sqq.). In consequence of this invasion, many Jews were carried off as slaves, Jo. iii. 3, 6, Amos i. 6, and thus began about this time (between 90 and 880) the captivity of Israel (2). Jehoahaz, or (as he is also called) Ahaziah, the son of Jehoram, was involved in the fate of, along with the whole house of Ahab, meeting with his death, after a reign of scarcely one year, on the occasion of a visit which he was paying to his royal relatives in Israel (comp. § 174). The daughter of Jezebel, who was worthy of her mother, now ruled absolutely at Jerusalem. The males of David's race were at this time grievously diminished, Jehoram having (2 Chron. xxi. 2–4) slain his six brethren, and himself lost all his sons except the youngest at the incursion of the Arabians (xxi. 17, xxii. 1); see above. Finally, Athaliah utterly extirpated the male descendants of the royal race, with the exception of Joash, a young son of Ahaziah, who was saved from the fury of his grandmother by his aunt, the wife of the high priest. This child, the last scion of the house of David, was concealed six years in the temple; and it now became evident how powerful the priesthood had grown under Jehoshaphat, the deliverance of Judah being effected not by prophets but by priests. In a cautiously planned and speedily executed insurrection, Athaliah was slain and Joash raised to the throne, a renewal of the theocratic covenant and the extirpation of the worship of Baal taking place on this occasion, 2 Kings xi., 2 Chron. xxiii. (873 B.c.) (3). The guardianship of the young king was undertaken by Jehoiada; and it is to the period immediately following (about 870 B.C.) that the book of the prophet Joel must, on internal grounds, be attributed. It was a period during which the worship of Jehovah flourished, and the prophets were held in so high respect, that, on the occasion of a grievous visitation, priests and people united, at the word of a prophet, in holding a solemn fast in the temple (4). The aspect of affairs was, however, entirely changed during the second half of the reign of Joash. After the death of Jehoiada, idolatry, through the influence of the nobles,