incorporates the final ed with the preceding syllable, whenever this is not impossible by reason of the nature of the letters.

Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound by introducing a word or words between them: as, what way soever he turned; to us ward.

§317. Figures of syntax are intentional deviations from the ordinary construction of words. Those most in use are five in number; El-lip'-sis, Ple/-o-nasm, Syl-lep/-sis, En-alla-ge, and Hy-per-ba-ton.

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words, necessary to the construction of a sentence, but not essential to its meaning; as, "[He] who steals my purse, steals trash."—"To whom thus Eve [spoke]."

Words thus omitted are said to be understood. They are used in the syntactical parsing of sentences, to explain the agreement or government of the words expressed.

Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words; as, "The boy, oh! where was he?"—"I know thee, who thou art." This figure often imparts force to expressions, and is generally employed when the feelings are strongly excited.

Syllepsis is the construing of words according to the meaning they convey, and not by the strict requirements of grammatical rules; as, "Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them."—" The moon her silver beams dispenses."

In the first example, city is 3d person, singular number; and, according to strict grammatical rules, them should be it. By the city, however, the writer means the people in the city; and he is, therefore, at liberty to use a pronoun in the plural. In the last example, it will be seen, there is a species of inferior personification, by which sex is attributed to the moon, an inanimate object; we may therefore substitute a feminine pronoun for its, which, strictly speaking, it would be neces sary to use. As in this last case, the deviation which constitutes Syllepsis often arises from the introduction of a rhetorical figure, such as personification or metaphor.

§ 817. What are figures of syntax? Name those most in use. What is Ellipsis? What is said of words omitted according to this figure? In what are they used? What is Pleonasm? What does this figure impart to expressions, and when is it gen. erally employed? What is Syllopsis? Point out how this figure operates in the two

Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or one modifica. tion of a word, for another; as, "They fall successive and successive risc."- -"Sure some disaster has befell."

In the first example, we should have the adverb successively to modify the verbs fall and rise, instead of the adjective successive; and, in the last, the participle befallen, in place of the imperfect befell. The truth is, that this figure has been found necessary, to excuse the grammatical errors that occur in distinguished writers. The young composer is warned against supposing that Enallage can justify a violation of the rules of Syntax. Perhaps the only case in which it may with profety be used, is the substitution of you for thou and we for I, when reference is made to a single person.

Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders earth around,"-for, "He wanders around earth."

This figure constitutes one of the chief features that distinguisł poetry from prose. Judiciously used in either, it imparts variety, strength, and vivacity, to composition. Care must be taken, however, not to carry it to such an extent as to occasion ambiguity or obscurity.

EXERCISE.

Point out the figures that occur in the following passages, and show, if they were not employed, what changes would have to be made in the words:

1. There's but one pang in death, leaving the loved. 2. Thro' me shine the pearly pebbles. 3. Maister, have you any wery good weal in your vallet? 4. E'en 'neath the earth I'll him pursue. 5. At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down: at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he fell down dead. 6. It's never a trouble, so plase your honor, for an Irishman to do his duty. 7. He touchethe no thing, he handlethe nought, but holdethe everemore his Hondes before him, upon the Table. 8. Adown the steepy hill they toil. 9. Th' aërial pencil forms the scene anew. 10. So little mercy shows who needs so much. 11. Pr'ythee, peace. 12. There lament they the live day long. 13. I lay in Sion a stumbling-stone, and rock of offence; and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. 14. Turn thou me, and I shall be turned. 15. He that hath charity, for him the prayers of many ascend. 16. First Evening draws her crimson curtain, then Night

given examples. From what does Syllepsis often arise? What is Enallage? Show how it operates in the given examples. For what has this figure been found necessary? Against what is the composer warned? In what case may Enallage be properly employed? What is Hyperbaton? In what is this figure most used? What does it contribute to produce? What may result from its immoderate ase?

throws down ner pall. 17. Consider the lilies of the field, how they

grow.

18. Dan Chaucer, Well of English undefyled,
On Fame's eternall beadroll worthie to be fyled.

O'erturn his bowers, and lay his castle low.

20. 'Tis Fancy, in her fiery car,

Transports me to the thickest war.

21. Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys.
22. Bliss is the same in subject as in king,
In who obtain defence, or who defend.

LESSON XLVIII.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

§318. THE figures defined in the last lesson, though it is important that the student should be able to recognize them, and, if need be, use them, have but little to do with style, compared with those which we shall next consider, and which are known as figures of rhetoric. Before proceeding to treat of these separately, we may with propriety consider figurative language in general, its origin, its peculiarities, and the advantages gained by its use.

§319. DEFINITION.-Figurative language implies a departure from the simple or ordinary mode of expression; a clothing of ideas in words which not only convey the meaning, but, through a comparison or some other means of exciting the imagination, convey it in such a way as to make a lively and forcible impression on the mind.

· Thus, if we say, "Saladin was shrewd in the council, brave in the field," we express the thought in the simplest manner. But if we vary

$318. How do the figures just defined compare in importance with figures of rhetoric? Before proceeding to treat of the latter, what is it proposed to consider? § 819. What does figurative language imply? Illustrate its use with the two examples given.

the expression thus," Saladin was a fox in the council, a lion in the field," we clothe the same sentiment in figurative language. Instead of cunning and courage, we introduce the animals that possess these quali ties in the highest degree, and thus present livelier images to the mind. So, we have a plain and simple proposition in the sentence, “It is impossible, even by the most careful search, fully to ascertain the divine nature." But when we say, “Canst thou, by searching, find out God? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection? It is high as heaven. what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou know?" we unite with the same proposition questions expressive of admiration, and thus render it more forcible.

§ 320. ORIGIN.-To account for the origin of figures, we must go back to that of language itself, for they are coeval. At this early period, men would naturally begin with giving names to the different objects with which they came in contact. Their nomenclature was at first, of course, limited and imperfect; but, as knowledge increased and ideas multiplied, the store of words would naturally increase also. Nevertheless, to the infinite variety of objects and ideas, language was inadequate; or rather, to extend it so as to have a separate word for each, would have involved a vocabulary too cumbrous for even the best memories. This difficulty was to be avoided; and a natural expedient was adopted,—that of making a word already applied to one idea or object stand for another, between which and the primary one they found or fancied some resemblance to exist. Thus, compassion in the human breast, as well as mildness of speech, seemed to be a kindred idea to softness in material bodies. The latter term was therefore extended to the two former ideas; we speak with equal propriety of a soft bed, a soft heart and soft words.

Figures of this kind abound in all languages. The operations of the mind and affections, in particular, are designated by words originally applied to sensible objects. These words, being earliest introduced,

§ 320. To account for the origin of figures, to what must we go back? With what would men naturally begin? What was the character of their nomenclature at first? When did it begin to be extended? What was the objection to inventing a separate word for each idea and object? What natural expedient was adopted? Give an illus. tration. To what objects were names first given? To what, in particular, were these names afterwards extended? Cite some expressions which arose in this way. What

were naturally extended, by degrees, to those mental peculiarities of which men had more obscure ideas and to which they found greater difficulty in assigning distinct names. Hence arose such expressions as a piercing judgment, a warm and a cold heart, a rough temper. In some cases, these figurative words are the only ones that can well be applied to such ideas; as the student will be convinced, on attempting to find a synonymous expression for a cold or freezing reception".

With the origin of figures, moreover, imagination has had much to do. Every object that makes an impression on the mind is accompanied with certain cognate ideas. Nothing presents itself in an isolated manner. There are relations which inseparably connect every material object with other things which either precede or follow it, produce it or are produced by it, resemble it or are opposed to it. Thus every idea carries <thers in its train, which may be regarded as its accessories; and the latter often strike the mind more forcibly than the principal idea itself. They are pleasanter, perhaps, or more familiar; or they recall to remembrance a greater variety of important circumstances. The imag ination, thus disposed to rest on the accessory rather than on the principal object, often applies to the latter the name or epithet originally appropriated to the former. Hence, choice, as well as the necessity alluded to above, has given currency to a great number of figurative expressions, and men of lively imaginations are adding to them every day. Thus, instead of saying, "Under Augustus, Rome enjoyed greater power and glory than at any other period," we take an analogous idea, suggested by imagination from the growth of a plant or tree, and say, "Rome flourished most under Augustus;" or, remembering that, when a heavenly body is directly overhead, and therefore apparently at the highest point of its orbit, astronomers say it is at its zenith, we substitute this accessory and say, “Under Augustus, Rome was at the zenith of her power and glory",—and thus express the thought more tersely and pointedly than by the literal language above cited.

§321. HISTORY.-Such was the origin of figurative lan guage. First introduced by necessity, it was found to yield such pleasure to the imagination and communicate so much life to composition, that men used it in preference to plain

faculty of the mind, also, had much to do with the origin of figures? Describe the way in which it operated to produce them. Express, in plain language, the fact that ander Augustus, Rome attained her greatest power and glory. Express the same sentiment figuratively in two different ways. Show, in each case, whence the figure la derived.

§ 821. What two causes, then, led to the use of figurative language? When did