China. forth from his palace crowned with flowers, and enters his chair amidst the noise of different inftruments which precede it; a great number of people attending, as is ufual on all fuch occafions. The chair is furrounded by litters covered with filk carpets, on which are reprefented either fome illuftrious perfons who have fupported and encouraged agriculture, or fome hiftorical painting on the fame fubject. The ftreets are hung with carpets, triumphal arches are erected at certain diftances, lanthorns everywhere difplayed, and all the houfes illuminated. During the ceremony a figure resembling a cow, made of baked earth, with gilt horns, is carried in proceffion, and of fuch enormous magnitude that 40 men are fcarce fufficient to fupport it. A child follows with one foot naked and the other fhod, who is called the Spirit of labour and diligence, and keeps continually beating the image with a rod to make it advance. Labourers, with their implements of hufbandry, march behind; and the proceffion is closed by a number of comedians and people in masks. The governor advances towards the eastern gate, and returns in the fame manner. The cow is then stripped of its ornaments, a prodigious number of earthen calves taken from its belly and diftributed among the people; after which the large figure is broken in pieces and diftributed in the fame manner. The ceremony is ended by an oration in praise of agriculture, in which the governor endeavours to excite his hearers to the practice of that ufeful art.

Other two feftivals are celebrated in China with ftill more magnificence than that above defcribed. One of them is at the commencement of the year; the other is called the feast of lanthorns. During the celebration of the former, all bufinefs, whether private or public, is fufpended, the tribunals are shut, the pofts ftopped, prefents are given and received, and vifits paid. All the family affemble in the evening, and partake of a feaft to which no ftranger is admitted; though they become a little more fociable on the following day.

The feast of lanthorns ought to take place on the 15th day of the first month, but ufually commences on the evening of the 13th, and does not end till that of the 16th. At that time every city and village, the fhores of the fea, and the banks of all the rivers, are hang with lanthorns of various shapes and fizes; fome of them being feen in the courts and windows of the poorest houses. No expence is fpared on this occafion; and fome of the rich people will lay out eight or nine pounds fterling on one lanthorn. Some of these are very large, compofed of fix wooden frames either neatly painted or gilt, and filled up with pieces of fine transparent filk, upon which are painted flowers, ani. mals, and human figures; others are blue, and made of a tranfparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a great number of wax candles, are placed in the infide to the corners of each are fixed streamers of filk and fatin of different colours, with a curious piece of carved work on the top. They are likewife acquainted with our magic lanthorn, which they fometimes introduce in this feftival. Befides this, they have the art of forming a fnake 60 or 80 feet in length, filled with lights from one end to the other; which they caufe twist itself into different forms, and move about

:

as if it were a real ferpent. During the fame festival China. all the varieties of the Chinefe fire-works, fo juftly admired, and which, fome time ago at leaft, furpaffed every thing of the kind that could be done in Europe, are exhibited.

117

Every public ceremony in China is carefully ren- Magnifi dered as ftriking as poffible. A viceroy never quits cence of his palace but with a royal train, dreffed in his robes the viceof ceremony, and carried in a chair elegantly gilt, roys. which is borne upon the shoulders of eight domestics; two drummers marching before the guards, and beating upon copper bafons to give notice of his approach. Eight other attendants carry ftandards of wood varnifhed, upon which are infcribed in large characters all his titles of honour. After these come 14 flags with the fymbols of his office; fuch as the dragon, tyger, phoenix, flying tortoife, &c. Six officers follow, each bearing a piece of board in fhape like a large shovel, on which are written in large golden characters the qualities of the mandarin himfelf: two others carry, the one a large umbrella of yellow filk, and the other the cover in which the umbrella is kept. The firft guards are preceded by two archers on horseback the latter are followed by others armed with a kind of weapons composed of hooked blades, fixed perpendicularly to long poles ornamented with four tufts of filk, placed at a fmall distance above one another. Behind thefe are two other files of foldiers, fome of whom carry large maces with long handles; others iron maces in the fhape of a fnake; others are armed with huge hammers; while thofe behind them carry long battle-axes in the form of a crefcent: others follow, who have battle-axes of another kind; and behind these are some with the hooked weapons already defcribed.

Behind these come foldiers armed with triple-pointed fpears, arrows, or battle axes; having in front two men who carry a kind of box containing the viceroy's feal. Then come two other drummers to give notice of his approach. Two officers follow, having on their heads felt hats, adorned with plumes of feathers, and each armed with a cane to recommend regularity and good order to the furrounding multitude. Two others bear maces in the form of gilt dragons. Thele again are followed by a number of magiftrates and officers of justice fome of whom carry whips or flat flicks, while others have chains, hangers, and filk scarfs. Two ftandard-bearers and a captain command this company, which immediately precede the governor. His chair is furrounded by pages and footmen, and an officer attends him who carries a large fan in form of a fcreen: he is followed by feveral guards differently armed, together with enfigns and other officers, who are alfo followed by a great number of domeftics all on horfeback, carrying various neceffaries for the use of the mandarin. If he marches in the night-time, instead of flambeaux, as are cuftomary in Europe, large lanthorns, exceedingly pretty, are carried before him; on the transparent part of which are written, in very confpicuous characters, his quality, titles, and rank, as mandarin. These are alfo intended to give notice to the paffengers to ftop, and to those who are fitting to rife up with refpect; for whoever neglects either the one or the other is fure to receive a fevere bafti. nading. The

E 2

China.

118 Knavish

nefe.

The emperor marches with ftill more magnificence, in proportion to his fuperior quality. The trumpets ufed in his proceffion are about three feet long, eight inches in diameter at the lower extremity, and pretty much refembling a bell in fhape: their found is peculiarly adapted to that of the drums. His cavalcade is clofed by 2000 mandarins of letters, and as many of arms. Sometimes the great mandarins, as well as the emperor, travel in barks: their attendance is then fomewhat different, but the magnificence almoft the fame. The honours paid to a viceroy who has governed a province with equity are exceedingly great on his departure from it. He has fcarcely left the capital of the province when he finds on the highway, for the fpace of two or three leagues, tables ranged at certain distances, each of which is furrounded with a long piece of filk that hangs down to the earth. On thefe wax candles are placed even in the open day; perfumes are burnt upon them; and they are loaded with a profufion of victuals and various kinds of fruit, while tea and wine are prepared for him on others. The people throw themselves on their knees as he paffes, and bow their heads even to the earth; fome fhed tears, or pretend to do fo; fome prelent him with wine and sweetmeats; others frequently pull off his boots and give him new ones. Thefe boots, which he has perhaps used only for a moment, are confidered as a valuable monument: thofe first taken off are preferved in a cage over the gate of the city; the reft are carefully kept by his friends.

Hitherto our author, M. Grofier, has feemed indifpofition clined to give a favourable idea of the Chinese, and to of the Chi- caufe us look upon them as many degrees fuperior to ourfelves in the practice of virtue and morality; but when he comes to give an account of their dealings in trade, he is then obliged to confefs that they are as difhonest and knavish a race as any that exist. "The most frequented fairs of Europe (fays he) afford but a faint idea of that immenfe number of buyers and fellers with which the large cities of China are continually crowd. ed. We may almoft fay, that the one half are employed in over-reaching the other. It is, above all, against ftrangers that the Chinese merchants exercise, without any fenfe of fhame, their infatiable rapacity. Of this F. du Halde gives a friking example, which might be fupported by many others: The captain of an English veffel bargained with a Chinese merchant at Canton for feveral bales of filk, which the latter was to provide against a certain time. When they were ready, the captain went with his interpreter to the houfe of the Chinese merchant to examine whether they were found and in good condition. On opening the first bale, he found it according to his with, but all the reft were damaged and good for nothing. The captain on this fell into a great paffion, and reproached the merchant in the fevereft terms for his difhonefty. The Chinese, after having heard him for fome time with great coolness, replied, Blame, Sir, your knave of an interpreter: he affured me that you would not infpect

the bales.

"The lower class of people are, above all, very dexterous in counterfeiting and adulterating every thing they fell. Sometimes you think you have bought a capon, and you receive nothing but skin; all the reft has been fcooped out, and the place fo ingenioufly filled,

that the deception cannot be discovered till the moment China. you begin to eat it. The counterfeit hams of China have been often mentioned. They are made of a piece of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over with a certain kind of earth which is covered with hog's fkin. The whole is fo curiously painted and prepared, that a knife is neceffary to detect the fraud. Mr Ofbeck relates, that having one day obferved a blind man carrying about for fale fome of thofe trees called by the Chinese Fokei, he purchased one, which to appearance had fine double red and white flowers; but on clofer examination, he found that the flowers were taken from another tree, and that one calyx was fo neatly fitted into the other, with nails made of bamboo, that he fhould fcarcely have discovered the deceit had not the flowers begun to wither. The tree itself had buds, but not one open flower.

"The robbers in China fignalize themselves alfo by the dexterity and ingenuity which they display in their profeffion. They feldom have recourfe to acts of violence, but introduce themselves into a house either privately or by forming fome connection with the family. It is as difficult in China to avoid robbery as it is to apprehend the criminal in the fact. If we are defirous of finding among the Chinese openness of temper, benevolence, friendship, and, laftly, virtue, we must not feek for it in cities, but in the bosom of the country, among that clafs of men who have devoted themfelves to labour and agriculture. A Chinese rustic often difcovers moral qualities which would add a luftre to the character of men of the most exalted rank. It appears that rural life naturally infpires fentiments of benevolence; by continually receiving the gifts of nature, the mind is enlarged, and men infenfibly accustomed to diffuse them to thofe around them."

are

The internal commerce of China is much greater than that of all Europe; but its foreign trade is by no means equal to that of any of the grand European powers. Its internal commerce is greatly facilitated by the vast number of canals and rivers with which the country is interfected. The Chinese, however, are not at all fitted for maritime commerce: Few of their veffels go beyond the ftraits of Sunda; their longeft voyages to Malacca extended only as far as Acheen, towards the ftraits of Batavia, and northward to Japan.

Their commerce with the last mentioned island, confidering the article of exchange, which they procure at Camboya or Siam, produces them cent. per cent. Their trade with the Manillas brings only about 50 per cent. Their profit is more confiderable about Batavia; and the Dutch fpare no pains to invite them to traffic at their fettlements. The Chinese traders go alfo, through not very frequently, to Acheen, Malacca, Thor, Patan, and Ligor, belonging to Siam and Cochin-china; from whence they bring gold and tin, together with fome objects of luxury for the table. objects of luxury for the table. A great obftacle to the foreign commerce of the Chinese is their indifference about maritime affairs, and the bad construction of their veffels. This they themselves acknowledge; but fay, that any attempt to remove it would be derogating from the laws, and fubverting the conititution of the empire.

119 Burying

The burying-places in China are always fituated at places de fcribed.

a

A few moments

nefe as the most important of any. after a perfon has expired, he is dreffed out in his richeft attire, and adorned with every badge of his dignity; after which is he placed in the coffin. The preparation of a coffin, in which his body may be inclosed after death, is one of the chief objects of attention to a Chinefe, during his life, and great expence is often thrown out upon it; infomuch that the poor will give all they are worth, and the rich expend a thousand crowns, nay, a fon will fell himself for a flave in order to purchase a coffin for his father. Sometimes the coffin, when purchased with all this labour and expence, will remain twenty years useless in the family, and is confidered as the most valuable piece of furniture in his poffeffion.

a fimall distance from a city or town, and generally upon fome eminence, having pines or cypreffes ufually planted around them. The form of the tombs is various according to the different provinces, and the fituation of thofe for whom they are intended. The coffins of the poor are placed under a fhade covered with thatch, or inclosed in a small building of brick in the form of a tomb. The tombs of the rich are shaped like a horse-fhoe, well whitened, and finished with great tafte; but those of the mandarins and people of quality are much more fumptuous and elegant. A vault is first conftructed, in which the coffin is shut up; over this vault is raised a pyramid of earth well beat together, about 12 feet in height and 10 in diameter. A layer of lime and fand laid over this earth makes a kind of plaster, which renders the whole very durable and folid; various kinds of trees being planted around it in regular order. Before it is placed a large and long table of white marble, on the middle of which is fet a cenfer, accompanied with two vafes, and the fame number of candlesticks of exquifite workmanship. Befides this a great number of figures, reprefenting officers, eunuchs, foldiers, faddled horfes, camels, lions, tortoifes, &c. are ranged round the tombs in different rows; which, F. du Halde affures us, produce a very striking effect.

When a Chinese dies in a province in which he was not born, his children have a right, nay it is their indispensable duty, to transport the body to the buryingplace of their ancestors. A fon, who should be wanting in this refpect, would be difgraced, and his name never placed in the hall of his ancestors. This is a vaft building, confidered as common to all the branches of the fame family, and to which they all repair at a certain feafon of the year. Sometimes they amount to seven or eight thousand perfons, whofe fortune, dignity, and rank in fociety, are all very different; but there no diftinction of rank is known; age only gives precedence, and the oldest always takes place of all the reft, though he should be the pooreft in the company. The distinguishing ornament of this hall is a long table fet against the wall, upon which is generally feen the image of one of their ancestors, who has filled fome office of distinction in the empire with honour. to himself, or who has been rendered illuftrious by his talents and abilities. Sometimes it only contains the names of men, women, and children belonging to the family infcribed upon tablets, together with their age, the day of their death, and the dignities they enjoyed at that time. These tablets are ranged in two rows upon fteps, and are only about a foot high each. In the fpring, and fometimes in the autumn, the relations of the deceased repair to this hall, where the only privilege enjoyed by the richest is that of preparing an entertainment, and treating the whole family at their own expence; but they never allow themselves to taste a bit of any thing until an offering has been first made to their ancestors. This does not, however, excufe them from visiting the real tomb of their ancestors once or twice a year, generally in the month of April. At this time they pluck the weeds and bushes from around the tomb, renew their expreffions of grief, and conclude by placing upon it wine and provisons, which ferve to dine their affiftants.

The funeral ceremonies are confidered by the Chi

The manner of interment is as follows: First they fprinkle fome lime in the bottom of the coffin; then they lay the body in it, taking care to place the head on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it may remain more fteady, and be prevented from fhaking. In this manner the body remains expofed feven days; but the time may be reduced to three, if any weighty reafon makes it neceffary; and, during this interval, all the relations and friends, who are purposely invited, come and pay their refpects to the deceafed, the nearest relations even remaining in the house. The coffin is expofed in the hall of ceremony, which is then hung with white, but fome pieces of black or violet-coloured filk are here and there interfperfed, as well as fome other ornaments of mourning. Before the coffin is placed a table, on which ftands the image of the deceased, or a carved ornament infcribed with his name; and these are always accompanied with flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax candles.

In the mean time thofe who enter the hall are accuftomed to falute the deceafed as if he were still in life. They proftrate themselves before the table, and knock their foreheads feveral times against the earth; after which they place on the table fome perfumes and wax candles provided for the purpose. The falutation which they have made to the deceased is returned by the eldest fon accompanied by his brothers. The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which hangs on one fide of the coffin, creeping along the ground until they reach the fpot where thofe ftand whom they are going to falute; after which, without rifing up, they return to the place from whence they came. The women are alfo concealed behind the fame curtain, from whence they every now and then fend forth difmal cries.

After a number of ceremonies and invitations, the funeral proceffion at last commences. A troop of men march in a file, carrying different figures made of pafteboard, and representing flaves, lions, tigers, horfes, &c. Others follow, marching in two files; fome of which carry ftandards, fome flags or cenfers filled with perfumes; while melancholy and plaintive airs. are played by others on different musical instruments. Thefe muficians immediately precede the coffin, which is covered with a canopy, in form of a dome, of violetcoloured filk; its four corners are ornamented with tufts of white filk very neatly embroidered, and covered at the top with net-work. The coffin is placed on the bottom of this machine, and is carried by 64

C only the pronunciation; which indeed appears to be varied in fome few inftances. It is certain, however,

that the Chinese players act theatrical pieces which were written 1000 years ago, and that these are still understood throughout the empire.

The language of China has no alphabet; all the words which compofe it confift of one fyllable only, and are very few in number. Thefe always remain the fame, and continue monofyllables even when two are joined together, being united in the fame manner as the French words bon and jour are united to form bonjour. These monofyllables never form but one found. When written by an European, they begin with the letters ch, tch, f, g, or j, i, h, l, m, n, g, ng, p, f, is, v, ou; the final letters being a, e, i, o, oi, ou, a, l, n, gn. The middle of Chinese words confits of vowels and confonants producing only one found, and pronounced always as monofyllables. The whole primary words of the language are in number only about 330, though fome dictionaries make them 484. The fense of these words, however, is varied by the accents and changes of the voice in pronouncing them almoft ad infinitum. Two principal accents are known in China; the ping, that is, even, without elevating or deprefling the voice. This is divided into tfing, clear, and tcho, obfcure; or rather open and mute. cent tfe is fubdivided into tchang, sharp, kiu, grave, and jou, re-entering. The tone is chang when one raises the voice at the end of a word, as when the negative no is pronounced with great emphafis and force; it is kiu when one depreffes the voice with an air of timidity. When the accent is jou, the voice is drawn back as it were into the throat; and the aspiration which takes place on certain words beginning with the letters c, k, p, t, still adds to these varieties.

The ac

By thefe differences in pronunciation the fignifica tion of the words is totally changed: thus the word tchu pronounced by lengthening the u, and with a clear tone of voice, fignifies mafter or lord: if it is pronounced in an uniform tone by lengthening the u, it fignifies bog: when pronounced lightly and with rapidity, it fignifies kitchen; and when articulated with a ftrong voice depreffed towards the end, it fignifies a pillar.

By the conjunction and modification of these different monofyllables, a Chinefe can exprefs every thing he has occafion for; and it may be eafily feen what variery muft refult from this art of multiplying words. The Chinese language therefore has words expreffive of the smallest variation of circumftance, and which cannot be expre fed in the European languages without a circumlocution. Thus instead of the five words, calf, bull, ox, heifer, cow, every time that a cow has a calf the acquires a new name in the language of this empire; and ftill another when he becomes barren. An ox fed for facrifice has a particular name, which is changed when he goes to the altar. In like manner, a whole dictionary might be composed of the words that are employed to exprefs the different parts of the emperor's palace, and thofe that are in a manner confecrated to it; others being employed when the palaces of princes or mandarins are fpoken of. Thus the number of their characters are augmented beyond all bounds, fo that the greater part of their literati fpend all their lives in ftudying them.

In the Chinese their are four different languages, 1. The Kou-ouen, or claffical language. This is not fpoken at prefent, though it is generally believed to have been the language of the early ages. It is fo laconic, and the ideas are fo crowded, that it is very difficult to be understood; however, the literati, who can read and understand it, are much delighted with it. 2. The Ouen tchang is the language used in compofitions where a noble and elevated ftyle is requifite. It is never spoken, but certain fentences and complimentary expreffions are fometimes borrowed from it. It approaches near to the laconic brevity and majestic fublimity of the Kou-ouen, and is equally proper for every kind of fubject, excepting only the ambiguities of metaphyfics, and the formal rugged diction ufed in treating of the abstract sciences.

3. The Kouan-ba is the language of the court, of people in office, and of the literati. It admits of fynonymous expreffions to moderate the brevity of monofyllables; of pronouns and relatives; prepofitions, adverbs, and particles; to fupply the want of cafes, moods, tenfes, and numbers, which have place in other languages.

4. Hiang-tan is a kind of corrupted language, or provincial dialect, fpoken by the lower claffes in China; and of which every province, city, and almoft every village, has its own. Befides the sense of the words, which is changed in a great variety of places, they are fo altered by diverfity of pronunciation as to be almost unintelligible.

This language is so absolutely original, that no tra. ces of the moft diftant relation can be perceived, either in reference to the form of the character, the syftem on which it appears to have been conftructed, or its peculiar idiom, to any other known language to be met with upon the face of the earth. Many attempts indeed have been made by the learned and ingenious, to discover some affinity between it and different languages; but we apprehend without fuccefs. Etymological comparifons are often fanciful and ftrained, and feldom fail to lead to erroneous conclufions. It may indeed be admitted that it is poffible to trace a relemblance between the found of the Chinese language, and thofe of other nations, yet no art or ingenuity, no etymological trick, as Mr Barrow expreffes himself, will ever be able to trace any analogy between their written characters, farther than that they are made up of points and lines, which might conftitute an affinity between the Chinese and any other language on the face of the earth. It has no alphabetical arrangement, but confifts purely of a prodigious number of arbitrary figns, fettled by convention, and which have no external affinity to the things they are meant to defcribe. The ridiculous conjectures often made on this fubject by etymologifts might be pardoned if they were meant to be fatirical, like Dean Swift's antiquity of the Englih tongue, from which he makes the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, to be derivatives.

Such is the nature of the Chinese language, that it would be abfurd to expect among that people fuch high attainments in every branch of literature as are to be met with in Europe. In the opinion of fome very eminent men, their acquaintance with erudition of any kind was as great 2000 years ago as it is at prefent, while others are perfuaded that they are rather on the decline.