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for instance, "to A. X., and, in case of his death, to his son B. X." Such language might raise a question, whether, "in case of his death," did not mean "at his death," and whether the testator's intention was not, to give the property to A. X. for his life only, and, after his death, to his son. The sentence might easily be rendered free from doubt by a slight addition:-" and in case of his death in my lifetime to B. X."

II. A testator will sometimes bequeath a legacy by Will to some person, and afterwards make a Codicil to that Will, in which some other legacy is given to the same individual. A doubt is often raised in this case, whether the second legacy is intended to be in lieu of the first, or in addition to it; and many have been the suits occasioned by this doubt. It should, therefore, always be expressly stated in the Codicil, whether the person in question is to have both legacies, or only the latter one.

III. A similar doubt may arise, if you bequeath a legacy to a person to whom you owe money. The general rule is, that your creditor must take the legacy in satisfaction of the whole or a part of his debt. But this rule is not universally adhered to, and the decision of the court may often disappoint the wishes of the testator. Your intention, therefore, on this point, should be clearly stated; that your executor may know, whether he is to pay the debt and the legacy too, or whether the former is merged in the latter.

IV. The reverse of the last case may occur; for it may happen that you are bequeathing a legacy to one who owes you money. In this case, also, you should clearly declare your intentions, whether the debt is to be forgiven, or to be set off against the legacy.

| her absolutely: if she die in her husband's lifetime, the property may be made subject to such appointment of it as she may make by Will, and may be given, in default of appointment, to her next of kin. But these trusts may be varied at pleasure. It is often attempted to limit property in this way to the separate use of single women, in order to provide against a future marriage: but the effect of some late decisions seems to be, to render all such provisions void.

VII. Personal property may be tied up in the same way, though not to the same extent, as land, by bequeathing it to several persons in succession, one after the other. In this case also, the disposition should properly be effected by means of trustees, to whom the property should be given, and who should be directed to hold it in trust for A during his life, and, after his death, in trust for B during his life, and so on.

But there is so much risk of render

ing bequests of this nature void, by attempting to tie up the property too long, and to make the enjoyment of it dependent on too remote conditions, that a testator should hardly ever trust himself to frame a Will of this nature without legal assistance; more especially as such bequests ought to be accompanied by clauses providing for a succession of trustees, indemnifying them against loss, and declaring how the property shall be let on lease, invested, or otherwise managed, according to its nature, during the continuance of the trust; all which provisions it is hardly possible for an unpractised man to draw up correctly, or even intelligibly. We, ourselves, shall not venture to make any further observations, lest we should be led beyond our depth.

We will conclude the subject by mentioning, that a Bill was brought into Parliament last Session, and will probably be introduced again next year, for regulating the execution of Wills of Personal Property. The intention seems to be, to put them on the same footing as Wills of Real Property, or with the distinction only of requiring two witnesses instead of three. Should this Bill pass into a law, the effect will be to make that mode of execution necessary, which, in our third section, we pointed out as expedient to be observed. W

V. In bequests to infants, confusion often arises from the testator directing that they shall have their legacies at twenty-one. He may either mean, that the legacy bequeathed to the child shall not be paid over to it, till he comes of age, but that, in the mean time, he shall have a fixed right to it, and, if he dies under twenty-one, that it shall go to his next of kin : or he may mean to give the legacy conditionally only, in case the child attains twenty-one, and not other wise. If he means the former, it is hardly necessary for him to say any thing about it, because no person can legally receive a legacy till he attains twenty-one, BEAUTIFUL PROVIDENTIAL ARRANGEMENT and the executor is bound to take care of it for him in the mean time. If the latter is meant, the testator should put his meaning beyond a doubt, by declaring that, if the infant dies under twenty-one, his legacy shall go to some one else, or shall sink into the residue of the property. In either case, it is as well to direct what shall be done with the annual income of the property, if it yield any, during the interval; especially if the testator wishes it to be applied to the maintenance or education of the child.

VI. It is sometimes wished to bequeath property to a married woman, so as to be for her separate use, and independent of her husband's control. This is most properly done by giving the legacy, not to the woman herself, but to a trustee for her, and by directing him to hold it in trust for her "sole and separate use," and to dispose of it according to her direction. Where it is not intended to give her the absolute control over it, the trustee may be directed to pay the interest or dividends arising from the property to the lady, or as she shall appoint, during the joint lives of herself and her husband, but so that she shall not be able to make any appointment in anticipation. If she survive her husband, the trustee should be directed to pay over the capital to

IN THE VEGETABLE WORLD. As another instance of adaptation between the force of gravity, and forces which exist in the vegetable world, we may take the positions of flowers. Some flowers grow with the hollow of their cup upwards: others, "hang the pensive head," and turn the opening downwards.

Now of these "nodding flowers," as Linnæus calls them, he observes that they are such as have their pistil longer than the stamens; and, in consequence of this position, the dust from the anthers,which are at the ends of the stamens, can fall upon the stigma, or extremity of the pistil, which process is requisite for making the flower fertile. He gives as instances the flowers Campanula, Leucoium, Galanthus, Fritillaria. Other botanists have remarked that the position changes at different periods of the flower's progress. The pistil of the Euphorbia, (which is a little globe or germen on a slender stalk,) grows upright at first, and is taller than the stamens: at the period suited to its fecundation, the stalk bend. under the weight of the ball at its extremity, so as to depress the germen below the stamens: after this it again becomes erect, the globe being now a fruit filled with fertile seeds.

the

THE MINES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The positions in all these cases depend upon length and flexibility of the stalk which supports No. V. INTERIOR OF MINES. MODe of working the flower, or in the case of the Euphorbia, the germen.

It is clear that a very slight alteration in the force of gravity, or in the stiffness of the stalk, would entirely alter the position of the flower-cup, and thus make the continuation of the species impossible. We have, therefore, here, a little mechanical contrivance, which would have been frustrated if the proper intensity of gravity had not been assumed in the reckoning. An earth greater or smaller, denser or rarer, than the one on which we live, would require a change in the structure and strength of the footstalks of all the little flowers that hang their heads under our hedges. There is something curious in thus considering the whole mass of the earth from pole to pole, and from circumference to centre, as employed in keeping a snowdrop in the position most suited to the promotion of its vegetable health.

[WHEWELL'S Bridgewater Treatise.]

ANECDOTE OF SIR SAMUEL HOOD.

THERE are some men who go about every thing they undertake with all their hearts and souls, and Sir Samuel Hood was one of these. He did nothing by halves and quarters; the greatest deeds of arms, or the most trivial objects of passing amusement, engrossed his whole attention for the time. In illustration of this, Captain Basil Hall gives the following anecdote. A working party of the crew of the Illustrious had one morning commenced constructing a wharf before the dock-yard. The stones of which this platform or landing-place was to be built, were, by Sir Samuel Hood's orders, selected of very large dimensions, so much so, that the sailors came at last to deal with a mass of rock so heavy, that their combined strength proved unequal to moving it beyond a few inches towards its final position at the top of one corner. The Admiral sat on his horse looking at the workmen for some time, cecasionally laughing, and occasionally calling out directions which the baffled engineers could by no means apply. At length his Excellency, the Commander-in-chief, became fidgety, and having dismounted, he tried to direct them in detail; but never a bit would the stone budge. Finally, losing all patience, he leaped from the top of the bank, and roared out, in a voice of reproach and provocation, "Give me the crow-bar." Thus armed, he pushed the officers and men to the right and left, while he insisted upon having the whole job to himself, literally, single-handed. He first drove the claws of the instrument well under the edge of the stone, then placed with his toe a small iron pin on the ground under the bar, and across its length, to act as a fulcrum or shoulder. When all things were carefully adjusted to his mind, he slipped his hand to the upper end of the lever, and weighing it down, gave what he called "life" to the huge stone, which, just before, half a dozen strong men had not been able to disturb. Sure enough, however, it now moved, though only about half an inch towards its intended resting-place. At each prize or hitch of the bar, the rock appeared to advance further, till, after five or six similar shifts, it was finally lodged in the station prepared for it, where, doubtless, it rests to this day, and may occupy for centuries to come.

The Admiral himself was delighted with his triumph, and his provocation against the men subsided at each successful march of the stone, until, at length, when the operation was completed, he flung down the bar, and called out to the grinning party, but with infinite good humour, "There, you hay-making, tinkering, tailoring fellows, that's the way to move a stone,-when you know how!"-CAPTAIN HALL.

NEVER let man imagine that he can pursue a good end by evil means, without sinning against his own soul! Any other issue is doubtful; the evil effect on himself is certain. SOUTHEY.

IT is enough for the present state of things, that men -act well. Of their motives, none but God can judge.SKELTON.

THE ORE.

THE interior of mines is very seldom visited, except by those who are actually engaged in carrying on the works, or in superintending these operations. Sometimes, indeed, a tourist feels his curiosity sufficiently strong, to overcome the repugnance naturally felt at quitting, "the warm precincts of the cheerful day,"-attires himself in a miner's dress, and ventures to descend into a mine. Whether the gratification received in such cases is a sufficient equivalent for the fatigue and inconvenience (not perhaps wholly unaccompanied by danger) which is sustained, is perhaps a matter of some doubt.

It must not be inferred, however, from this, that the subterranean world has no wonders of its own, which can repay the visiter. The mine itself, with its apparatus of pumps and machinery, as well as many of the processes employed, are all objects of considerable interest. The structure of the earth, with its marks of change and revolution, is no where so clearly laid open to our view as in mines, and here too alone, we have an opportunity of examining the wonderful depositories in which nature has stored up those mineral substances, which are so indispensable for the use of man. But to appreciate these objects requires some preliminary knowledge; they are by no means obvious to an unpractised eye, nor can they be embraced by a mere cursory glance. It must be remembered too, that the broad light of day is wanting, and its place is but ill supplied by the feeble glimmer of the miner's candle, which, to those unaccustomed to its light, has little more effect than to render "darkness visible." When we take all these circumstances into account, it will not be difficult to believe, that an imperfect and confused impression, is all that can generally be obtained by the adventurous traveller.

Familiar description, aided by the graphic illustrations of the Saturday Magazine, can however accomplish much, and in this manner we have no doubt of being able to convey to our readers a tole rably accurate idea of the nature of mines, the mode of working them, and some of the most extraordinary natural phenomena which they present to our notice. In thus opening, as it were, a new world to their view, we shall at once be gratifying a reasonable curiosity, and affording useful and interesting information.

The subterranean operations described in the preceding article, constitute what is termed "tutwork," and is paid for at so much per fathom, forming one of the heaviest expenses of a mine. When a productive vein has been laid open to a sufficient extent, in the manner before described, the remunerative part of the miner's labour begins. The rectangular portions of the vein, included between two contiguous winzes and the levels above and below them, is generally divided into two equal parts by an imaginary perpendicular line, and a party of the class of miners called "tributers," agree to "work," or excavate, the ore in each portion, on being paid a certain sum in the pound, on its actual value, the agreement generally continuing in force for a period of two months.

The tributers generally begin working at the bot tom of the mass, attacking the ores upon the richest points only. In this manner they gradually work upwards, excavating the ground between the two levels, in such a manner as may be most convenient and advantageous to themselves. By working up

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and therefore through the solid rock, is termed a cross-cut.

A considerable extent of the lode above this level having been productive of ore, has been worked out by tributers, forming the great excavation shown in the drawing, and which is supported by strong pieces of timber, placed at intervals across it, so as to press against the rock on each side. The inclined direction of the excavation, is of course occasioned by the dip or inclination of the vein, whose place it occupies, and of which the rock on the left hand formed the upper wall, and that on the right, the lower wall.

wards, it will be seen that the ore, when detached from the vein, falls down at once to the level below, thus avoiding the trouble and expense of raising it in small quantities, either by manual labour or machinery, to the level above; which would be necessary by a contrary mode of proceeding. When the lode is not very hard, the tributers are able to work it out with the pick and other tools; but in some cases, recourse must be had to blasting with gun-powder. As the tributers always undertake to work their pitch at as low a rate of payment as possible in the first instance, they can only afford, while working at that rate, to take out the best ore they find. When, however, the best ore is gone, the pitch is again taken (generally by the same party), but at a higher rate of tribute, and so on as long as any ore remains, which is of sufficient value to be worth extracting. In this manner the pitches at length become exhausted, no parts of the vein being left standing, except where the ore is very poor, or where none exists. These patches of the vein, which appear like islands in the midst of extensive excavations, are not, how-veys it through the cross-cut and adjoining levels, to ever, without use, as they serve to prevent the rock which surrounds the vein, from pressing inwards and crushing the workings of the mine. For this reason, they are called pillars or arches; and where the vein is so productive, that no part of it is left standing for a considerable extent, it is necessary to introduce artificial supports, for which purpose strong pieces of timber are used, as shown in the drawing.

The annexed sketch represents a scene in the extensive Tin-mine, called Polgooth, situated near the town of St. Austell, in Cornwall.

The excavation here shown, is what is termed "a tribute pitch," being on that part of the vein or "lode" included between two adjoining winzes and the levels above and below them. From this solid rectangular mass, the ore has been extracted in the manner just described, and it is in this operation that the men are seen employed.

The excavation shown in the sketch is, however, of much greater size and more regular form than is usually the case, the lode being here of the extraordinary width of more than twenty feet, and worked out for the whole of that extent. The bottom of the excavation was originally a level or horizontal passage, similar to, and indeed forming merely the continuation of, the one seen on the left, which, however, as it runs in a direction crossing the lode,

Two tributers are seen at the further end of the pitch, breaking down the ore with their picks, and another, supported on a ladder, is working a little above them. A lighted candle is stuck to the rock beside each, having a piece of clay wrapped round it for the purpose, as shown in the sketch.

As the ore is detached from the vein, and falls down, the pieces are shovelled into a barrow, by a lad who stands by for the purpose, and afterwards con

the shaft, where it is raised to the surface by a machine called a whim. In large mines, however, railways are frequently laid down in the levels, in which case, the ore is of course transported to the shaft by means of tram-waggons.

One of the superintendents of the mine, termed an underground-captain, is seen entering the pitch through the cross-cut. The principal objects of this inspection, are to examine the kind of ore the tributers are breaking; to see that the terms of the contract are complied with; and to place a check on any fraud which might be attempted by the men. The business of the captains includes also, the direction of all works of trial, such as sinking shafts, driving levels, &c.; together with every other circumstance connected with the internal economy of the mine. F. B.

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UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

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ITINERANT MUSICIANS OF INDIA.

ITINERANT MUSICIANS. PERHAPS there is no amusement in which the Hindoos so much delight, as in music. It accompanies all their festivals, all their processions, whether solemn or gay, many of their religious ceremonies, and is almost every where daily resorted to as an evening recreation for the social circle. Live where you may in India, if it be within the vicinity of a hamlet, or even of a single hut, you are perpetually stunned with the clash and clangor of cymbals, trumpets, drums, with numerous other instruments, as various in form as in power. The great charm of their blended harmonies to the ravished Indian, seems to be in proportion to the quantity, not to the quality, of sound. It is quite astonishing to see the extraordinary excitement often produced, in the usually phlegmatic Hindoo, by the din of that harsh minstrelsy, which he is accustomed to think the perfection of melody. The effect is electrical. His eyes, which were before relaxed into a languid expression of half-consciousness, become suddenly kindled with a blaze of enthusiasm, and he joins the procession which the minstrels are enlivening by their discordant strains, with gestures of frantic delight.

It

Highly as the natives of Hindoostan think of the acquirements of Europeans, they consider that we fall infinitely short of themselves in musical skill; although nothing can well be conceived to be more painfully distracting, than the clamour which they raise when performing their indigenous strains. must be admitted, however, that in spite of the extreme discordance of their popular music, it would be a mistake to suppose they have nothing more refined than what is usually heard at their feasts, processions, and village revels. We should have just as perfect an idea of musical science in England, from the fiddle, bagpipe, and drum, of those vulgar harmonists who frequent the pot-houses of St. Giles's or Petticoat lane, as we can form of that of the Hindoos, from the wretched performances of their itinerant musicians. The fact is, that in all countries, they are the very worst of their class. Ward, in his View of the History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos, mentions at least forty different kinds of musical instruments, peculiar to their community; and I have seen drawings of no less than thirty-six sorts, in which not more than half-a-dozen of those mentioned by Ward, are represented; so that the number, I should think, if all were enumerated, would not fall far short of a hundred. Not only are all these instruments formed upon scientific principles, but many of them are made with great intricacy of construction, and are capable of considerable nicety of adaptation, in the developement of choral effects. Most of these instruments may be used with advantage, in orchestral combinations, and from some of them, tones of extraordinary sweetness are occasionally produced, when touched by the hand of a skilful performer.

It appears that the science of music was very early cultivated among the Hindoos, and carried to a high pitch of excellence. There are several old treatises in Sanscrit, upon this interesting subject, in which it is handled with a degree of intelligence, now rarely to be found among native professors; indeed, it seems to be the prevailing opinion among the learned natives, that the moderns are much behind their forefathers, in musical knowledge. This is not to be wondered at, in a people whom perpetual conquests have, for the last four centuries, reduced to a state of bitter dependency, and whose science and literature are, obviously, from this very cause,

Nevertheless,

in a state of general decadence. though "fallen from their high estate," there are glorious remains among them, of the splendours of by-gone generations. They are devotedly attached to their national institutions, which are consecrated by the sanction of high antiquity, and endeared by those prejudices, which time and ignorance never fail to cherish. They have, as I have already said, the highest opinion of their national music, and I cannot better show the fervency of their faith in this particular, than by an extract from the third volume of the Asiatic Researches, on the musical modes of the Hindoos, by Sir William Jones. "I have been assured," he says, " by a credible eye-witness, that two wild antelopes used often to come from their woods, to the place where a more savage beast, Sira'juddaulah, entertained himself with concerts, and that they listened to the strains with an appearance of pleasure, till the monster, in whose soul there was no music, shot one of them to display his archery. Secondly, a learned native of this country told me, that he had frequently seen the most venemous and malignant snakes, leave their holes upon hearing tunes on a flute, which, as he supposed, gave them peculiar delight. And, thirdly, an intelligent Persian, who repeated his story again and again, and permitted me to write it down from his own lips, declared that he had more than once been present, when a celebrated lutanist, Mirza Mohammed, surnamed Bulbul, was playing to a large company, in a grove near Shiraz, when he distinctly saw the nightingales trying to vie with the musician, sometimes warbling on the trees, sometimes fluttering from branch to branch, as if they wished to approach the instrument, whence the melody proceeded, and at length dropping on the ground in a kind of ecstasy, from which they were soon raised, he assured me, by a change of the mode."

We should do the Indians a gross injustice, if we imagined their music was only cultivated by the commoner order, who follow the rabble in a festival cavalcade or religious procession, and frequently accompany upon their instruments, songs the most disgustingly licentious, sung by the vilest characters. The best artists in Hindostan, are to be found among the rich and learned, who often study music as a science, and occasionally attain very considerable proficiency in it. Indeed, in some instances, they have manifested a knowledge of foreign music, which might shame many of our own professors.

There is a very ancient treatise on Indian music, by Soma, who was a "practical musician as well as a great scholar and elegant poet; for the whole book, without excepting the strains noted in letters, which fill the fifth and last chapters of it, consists of masterly couplets in the melodious metre called A'ryà: the first, third and fourth chapters explain the doctrine of musical sounds, their division and succession, the variations of scales by temperament, and the enumeration of modes, on a system totally different from those which will presently be mentioned; and the second chapter contains a minute description of different vinas*, with rules for playing on them †.”

"I tried in vain," says the author just quoted, " to discover any difference in practice between the Indian scale and that of our own; but knowing my ear to be very insufficiently exercised, I requested a German professor of music to accompany with his violin a Hindoo lutanist, who sang by note some popular airs on the loves of Krishna and Ra'dhà: he assured

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