We shall now enter upon the manners and customs of civil life, or which have some relation to the religion of Mahomet. We must in the Precepts, Du- first place take notice, that the Koran contains some nega ties, &c., enjoin- tive precepts, concerning things that become evil or ed by the Koran. scandalous only by the abuse of them such as the forbidding of wine, and other intoxicating liquors, which seems enforced in several passages of the Koran; for instance, in the second chapter, where Mahomet says expressly, "that the sin committed by drinking wine is much greater than the advantage reaped from the use of it;" and in the fifth chapter, he reckons wine amongst the "abominations which are the works of Satan." Some have pretended that the excess only is forbidden; but the general opinion is, that it is not lawful to drink any of those liquors, and that whoever drinks even the smallest quantity commits a sin. Those who have performed the pilgrimage of Mecca are the most scrupulous in this point, and will neither drink any wine nor make it, buy nor sell it, nor the implements to make it, in order to live by the profits of such a traffic. Yet all the Mahometans are not so exact in observing this law; and when reproached with the breach of it by Christians, they have recourse to recrimination, and upbraid us with our violation of the Gospel precepts.

Some Mussulmans have doubted whether coffee be not comprehended under the general denomination of intoxicating liquors; because, they say, it disturbs the imagination of those who use it. It is, however, undoubted, that coffee, though now universally allowed in Mahometan countries, has been heretofore forbidden, and is now used by mere toleration, not by religious permission; nevertheless, very few abstain from the use of it. The scrupulous Mahometans are still more averse from tobacco, both because it has the same effect as wine and brandy, and also on account of a pretended prophecy of Mahomet, that " in the latter days some shall call themselves Mussulmans, without being really such, who will suck in through a pipe, and blow out, the smoke of a plant called tobacco." This qualification of false brethren could not but render tobacco odious to scrupulous people; yet the constant practice is to introduce coffee and tobacco, without which no entertainment is thought completely polite in the East; and the Persians, in particular, say, that tobacco is to coffee what salt is to meat.

The same rigourists condemn also the use of opium, or heng, or treacle, although nothing be more common. The Koran does not mention tobacco, nor opium, nor heng; but as they produce the same effects as wine, they are apt to cause quarrels, neglect of duty, several irregularities, and shameful disorders: all these reasons prove the necessity of abstaining from all such liquors or drugs. Upon the same account, the Jews, from whom, and from the ancient Arabians, the Magi, and the Christians, Mahomet has borrowed many of his religious precepts, did not allow the priests to drink wine when they were to officiate in their turn.

The second and fifth chapters of the Koran forbid also games of hazard, under the general denomination of Al Maisair, which strictly means the Games of ha- art of divination by arrows. We must observe that this zard forbidden, kind of witchcraft is very like Rhabdomancy, that is, the art of divination by rods, and is mentioned in the Prophecy of Ezekiel,

chap. xxi., verse 26, which is an evident proof that both the Arabians and their neighbours undertook no affair of moment without consulting their arrows. Mahomet forbade all these customs, with an intent, as he said, to take away all superstition; but others have been substituted for

them.

The Mahometans were likewise prohibited from games of hazard, under the name of superstition, that all occasions of quarrels and cheating, which generally accompany such games, might be removed. However, in this instance, the civil law enforces the authority of Mahomet and of the Koran, insomuch that games of hazard are in disrepute, and the testimony of those who are addicted to them is of no force in courts of justice; at least, it is pretended that such witnesses may be rejected.

The majority of the Mahometan doctors allow the game of chess, as depending wholly upon industry and skill; but they forbid playing too Chess allowed. long at it, or for money, or laying wagers about it, or at the hours appointed for prayer. These restrictions are observed more exactly by the Turks than by the Persians or Moguls. Some are of opinion that Mahomet forbids chess, under the name of images, because amongst the Arabians, as with us, most of the pieces represent men, elephants, horses, camels, &c. ; others think that Mahomet put that restraint only upon the pawns, which in Turkey are made quite plain. The Mahometans, however, generally abstain from gaming more easily than from wine, and chiefly in Persia, where drunkenness prevails as much as in some European countries.

This subject naturally leads us to give an account of the diversions and exercises used by the Mahometans: but we shall only mention those Puppet-shows, which have some relation to religion, according to the Jugglers, &c. al- good or bad use made of them, or which even are admitted lowed. as a part of their religious ceremonies. Amongst these are puppet-shows, with which the Turks entertain their guests in private after their meals, notwithstanding Mahomet's prohibition of images.

diversion is publicly exhibited in the Ramadan when the hour of fasting is past; for then they allow themselves as much sensual pleasure as the Christians do in the Carnival, or the Heathens did during the solemnity of their Saturnalia, the two last days of which were spent in puppetshows.

They have also jugglers, quacks, and public dancers of both sexes, called tehinguis; and although the Turks, Persians, and Moguls look upon dancers by profession as people of loose lives and morals, yet it must be owned, that those disorders are not always the consequence of dancing, and several nations have made use of it in their religious worship. Nothing, therefore, but the abuse has rendered dancing contemptible amongst the Mahometans, who nevertheless admit it in their religion, as appears by the turnings of their dervises, which the majority of travellers represent as a solemn act of worship performed every Tuesday and Friday. The superior of these dervises preaches a sermon on some text of the Koran, which is followed by some prayers out of the same book, sung by all of them together; then, having made a low bow to the superior, they begin to dance, or turn about, whilst some play on the flute or other instruments. This ceremony was invented by one Mewlana, whom the

dervises honour as a great saint; and we are assured by Ricault, that this man, whom he calls Mevelava, by a miracle, turned fourteen days together without resting or taking any nourishment, whilst another dervise, named Hamze, his companion, played on the flute; after which he fell into an ecstacy, and received wonderful revelations, and was very instrumental in founding the order of dervises. The flute is, they think, a sacred instrument of music, sanctified by Jacob and other holy shepherds of the Old Testament, who made use of it; yet the rigourists condemn both the dance and instruments of music, as contrary to religion.

As to the distinction of meats, we shall only add, that the Koran in several places forbids blood, and the flesh of beasts which have been either offered to idols, or which have died naturally; and some Mussulmans are so cautious in that point, that unless the butcher pronounces the prayer Bismillah, or "In the name of God," &c., whilst he kills any beast, they do not think think it lawful to eat of it.

Usury condemned.

Usury is also condemned in the second chapter of the Koran, and ranked amongst the most enormous sins. Mahomet does not allow it, as the Jews do, éven towards infidels. Yet there are some Mussulmans, who are usurers and extortioners, and give what interpretation they think fit, in order to elude the precepts of the Koran, as too many Christians do with respect to the Gospel. The same chapter which forbids usury, enjoins mercy and forbearance with a debtor who is not able to pay without depriving himself of the necessary means for the subsistence of himself and family; in which case, Mahomet orders his followers not to begin any prosecutions for such debts, but to reckon them as an alms given to the debtor. He may have borrowed this from the law of Moses and of CHRIST; and the dictates of humanity may also have inspired him to make that law, both to avoid. merciless and extortionate law-suits, and to prevent his subjects from being ruined. Thus we see the Romans, who lived before the Gospel, and were but little, if at all, acquainted with the law of Moses, had such an abhorrence of usury, that they obliged usurers to restore four times as much as they had thus unjustly gained; whereas thieves were only condemned to pay double what they had stolen. Prudence and equity convinced them that a usurer was more pernicious to society than a thief. The same sentiments of humanity, and the common good of society, prompted Mahomet to abolish the barbarous custom of the Koreishites and other Arabians, of burying girls alive; which they pretended was in order to prevent the shame which they might cause to their parents by evil conduct, and the slavery and miseries to which they were exposed. Moreover, they had no regard for women, but upon account of propagation and pleasure, and looked on their birth as a misfortune, their death a happiness; therefore, when a woman was in labour, she was led to a grave, and if delivered of a female child, it was thrown in and buried. The ceremony of marriage is in high esteem amongst the Mahometans; yet it is not celebrated in the presence of the priests, nor is it considered an act of religion, as with the Jews and Christians, and Marriage formerly with the Romans and Grecians. The Cadi, or civil judge, gives it a sanction; "as to an act purely relating to society, which is not valid without his presence. The husband

ceremonies.