FRANKS-FRANCE-FRENCH.

Germans who had already emigrated, the same as Cæsar painted the Gauls

there, and finally of the Franks, who had rendered themselves masters of the country under their chief Clovis. Whilst the monarchy subsisted, which united Gaul and Germany, all the people, from the source of the Weser to the seas of Gaul, bore the name of Franks. But when at the congress of Verdun in 843, under Charles the Bald, Germany and Ganl were separated, the name of Franks remained to the people of western France, which alone retained the name of France. The name of French was scarcely known until towards the tenth century. The foundation of the nation is of Gallic families, and traces of the character of the ancient Gauls have always existed.

Indeed, every people has its character as well as every man; and this character is generally formed of all the resemblances caused by nature and custom between the inhabitants of the varieties which distinguish them. Thus French character, genius, and wit, result from that which has been common to the different provinces in the kingdom. The people of Guienne and those of Normandy differ much; there is however found in them the French genius, which forms a nation of these different provinces, and distinguishes them from the Indians and Germans. Climate and soil evidently imprint unchangeable marks on men as well as on animals and plants. Those who depend on government, religion, and education are different. That is the knot which explains how people have lost one part of their ancient character and preserved the other. A people who formerly conquered half the world are no longer recognised under sacerdotal government, but the seeds of their ancient greatness of soul still exist, though hidden beneath weakness.

In the same manner the barbarous government of the Turks have enervated the Egyptians and the Greeks, without having been able to destroy the original character or temper of their minds.

The present character of the French is

prompt to resolve, ardent to combat, impetuous in attack, and easily discouraged. Cæsar, Agatius, and others say, that of all the Barbarians the Gauls were the most polished. They are still in the most civilised times the model of politeoccasionally discover the remains of their ness to all their neighbours, though they levity, petulance, and barbarity.

were always good seamen; the people The inhabitants of the coasts of France of Guienne always compose the best infantry; those who inhabit the provinces of Blois and Tours are not, says Tasso, robust and indefatigable, but bland and gentle, like the land which they inhabit:

..... Gente robusta, e faticosa, La terra molle, e lieta, e dilettosa Simili a se gli abitator, produce.

But how can we reconcile the chathat which the Emperor Julian, the first racter of the Parisians of our day with of princes and men after Marcus Aurelius, gave to the Parisians of his time?"I love this people," says he in his Misopogon, "because they are serious and severe like myself." This seriousness, which seems at present banished from an immense city become the centre of pleasure, then reigned in a little town destitute of amusements: in this respect the spirit of the Parisians has changed notwithstanding the climate.

of the people, who may occupy them-
The affluence, opulence, and idleness
selves with pleasures and the arts, and
not with the government, have given a new
turn of mind to a whole nation.

what degrees this people have passed Further, how is it to be explained by from the fierceness which characterised them in the time of King John, Charles VI. Charles XI. Henry III. and Henry which they are now the admiration of IV. to the soft facility of manners for Europe? It is that the storms of government and religion forced constitutional vivacity into paroxysms of faction city, which always will exist, has at and fanaticism; and that this same viva

present no object but the pleasures of
society. The Parisian is impetuous in
his pleasures as he formerly was in his
fierceness. The original character which
is caused by the climate is always the
same. If at present he cultivates the {
arts, of which he was so long deprived,
it is not that he has another mind since
he has not other organs; but it is that he
has more relief, and this relief has not
been created by himself, as by the Greeks
and Florentines, among whom the arts
flourished like the natural fruits of their
soil. The Frenchman has only received
them, but having happily cultivated and
adopted these exotics, he has almost per-
fected them.

The French government was originally that of all the northern nations, of all those whose policy was regulated in general assemblies of the nation. Kings were the chief of these assemblies; and this was almost the only administration of the French in the two first generations, before Charles the Simple.

always formed the predominant character of the nation.

Gallantry and politeness began to distinguish the French under Francis I. Manners became odious after the death of Francis II. However, in the midst of these horrors, there was always a politeness at court, which the Germans and English endeavoured to imitate. The rest of Europe, in aiming to resemble them, were already jealous of the French. A character in one of Shakspeare's comedies says, that it is difficult to be polite without having been at the court of France.

Though the nation has been taxed with frivolity by Cæsar, and by all neighbouring nations, yet this kingdom, so long dismembered, and so often ready to sink, is united and sustained principally by the wisdom of its negociations, address, and patience; but above all, by the divisions of Germany and England. Brittany alone has been united to the kingdom by a marriage; Burgundy by right of fee, and by the ability of Louis XI.; Dauphiny by a donation, which was the fruits of policy; the county of Toulouse by a grant, maintained by an army; Provence by money. One treaty of peace has given Alsace, another Lorraine. The English have been driven from France, notwithstanding the most signal victories, because the kings of France have known how to temporise, and profit on all favourable occasions;-all which proves, that if the French youth are fri

When the monarchy was dismembered, in the decline of the Carlovingian race, when the kingdom of Arles arose, and the provinces were occupied by vassals little dependant on the crown, the name of French was more restricted. Under Hugh Capet, Henry, and Philip, the people on this side the Loire only, were called French. There was then seen a great diversity of manners and of laws in the provinces held from the crown of France. The particular lords who became the masters of these provinces in-volous, the men of riper age, who govern troduced new customs into their new states. A Breton and a Fleming have at present some conformity, notwithstanding the difference of their character, which { they hold from the sun and the climate, but originally there was not the least similitude between them.

It is only since the time of Francis I. that there has been any uniformity in manners and customs. The court, at this time, first began to serve for a model to the United Provinces; but in general, impetuosity in war, and a lax discipline,

it, have always been wise. Even at present the magistracy are severe in manners, as in the time of the Emperor Julian. If the first successes in Italy, in the time of Charles VIII. were owing to the warlike impetuosity of the nation, the disgraces which followed them were caused by the blindness of a court which was composed of young men alone. Francis I. was only unfortunate in his youth, when all was governed by favourites of his own age, and he rendered his kingdom more flourishing at a more advanced age.

is painted on our retina, at a determinate angle. Our eyes were not given us to know sizes and distances: to know these, other aids and other operations are ne

Bambabef seemed much astonished at this position. Whang, being very patient, explained to him the theory of optics; and Bambabef, having some conception, was convinced by the demonstrations of the disciple of Confutzee. He then resumed in these terms:

The French have always used the same arms as their neighbours, and have nearly the same discipline in war, but were the first who quitted the use of the lance and pike. The battle of Yvri began to de-cessary. } cry the use of lances, which was soon abolished, and under Louis XIV. pikes were also discontinued. They wore tunics and robes until the sixteenth century. They left off the custom of letting the beards grow under Louis the Young, and retook to it under Francis I. and only began to shave entirely under Louis XIV. Their dress is continually changing; and at the end of each century the French might take the portraits of their grandfathers for those of foreigners.

FRAUD.

Whether pious Frauds should be practised upon the People?

ONCE upon a time the fakir Bambabefs met one of the disciples of Confutzee (whom we call Confucius); and this disciple was named Whang. maintained that the people require to be deceived, and Whang asserted that we ought never to deceive any one. Here is a sketch of their dispute :—

BAMBABEF.

BAMBABEF.

If God does not, as I thought, deceive us by the ministry of our senses, you will at least acknowledge that our physicians are constantly deceiving children for their good. They tell them that they are giving them sugar, when in reality they are giving them rhubarb. I, a fakir, may then deceive the people, who are as ignorant as children.

WHANG.

I have two sons; I have never deBambabefceived them. When they have been sick, I have said to them :-"Here is a nauseous medicine; you must have the courage to take it; if it were pleasant, it would injure you." I have never suffered their nurses and tutors to make them afraid of ghosts, goblins, and witches. I have thereby made them wise and courageous citizens.

We must imitate the Supreme Being, who does not show us things as they are. He makes us see the sun with a diameter of two or three feet, although it is a million of times larger than the earth

He'

makes us see the moon and the stars affixed to one and the same blue surface, while they are at different elevations: he chooses that a square tower should appear round to us at a distance: he chooses that fire should appear to us to be hot, although it is neither hot nor cold in short, he surrounds us with enors, suitable to our nature.

WHANG.

Do you not see that you are perverting these poor folks? There are among them many more than you think there are, who reason, who make a jest of your miracles and your superstitions; who see very clearly that they will not be turned into lizards, nor into post-horses. What is the consequence? They have good sense enough to perceive that you talk to them very impertinently; but they have not enough to elevate themselves to a religion pure and untrammelled by superstition like ours. Their passions make them think there is no religion, because the only one that is taught them is ridiculous: thus you become guilty of all the vices into which they plunge.

BAMBABEF.

Not at all; for we teach them none but good morals.

WHANG.

BAMBABEF.

That is a fine project, but it is impracticable. Do you think it is sufficient for men to believe in a being that rewards and punishes? You have told me that the more acute among the people often revolt against fables. They will, in like manner, revolt against truth. They will say, Who shall assure me that God reThe people would stone you if you wards and punishes? Where is the taught impure morals. Men are so con-proof? What mission have you? What stituted, that they like very well to do miracle have you worked that I should evil, but they will not have it preached believe in you? They will laugh at you to them. But a wise morality should much more than at me. not be mixed up with absurd fables: for by these impostures, which you might do without, you weaken that morality which you are forced to teach.

WHANG.

WHANG.

Your error is this. You imagine that men will spurn an idea that is honest, likely, and useful to every one; an idea which accords with human reason, because they reject things which are dishonest, absurd, useless, dangerous, and shocking to good sense.

I firmly believe it. Our literati are lieve their magistrates; and when their The people are much disposed to bemade of the same stuff as our tailors, our magistrates propose to them only a raweavers, and our labourers. They wortional belief, they embrace it willingly. ship a creating, rewarding, and avenging There is no need of prodigies to believe God. They do not sully their worship in a just God, who reads the heart of by absurd systems, nor by extravagantman: this is an idea too natural, too neceremonies. There are much fewer cessary, to be combatted. It is not necrimes among the lettered than among cessary to know precisely how God rethe people;-why should we not conde-wards and punishes: to believe in his scend to instruct our working classes as justice is enough. I assure you that I we do our literati ? have seen whole towns with scarcely any other tenet; and that in them I have seen

BAMBABEF.

That would be great folly; as well the most virtue.

BAMBABEF.

FREE-WILL.

Take heed what you say. You will find philosophers in these times, who will deny both pains and rewards.

WHANG.

But you will acknowledge that these philosophers will much more strongly deny your inventions; so you will gain nothing by that. Supposing that there are philosophers who do not agree with my principles, they are not the less honest men; they do not the less cultivate virtue, which should be embraced through love, and not through fear. Moreover, I maintain, that no philosopher can ever be assured that Providence does not reserve pains for the wicked, and rewards for the good. For, if they ask me who has told me that God punishes, I shall ask them who has told them that God does not punish. In short, I maintain that the philosophers, far from contradicting, will aid me. Will you be a philosopher?

BAMBABEF.

us gradually examine the chain of what Will is will, and liberty is power. Let passes within us, without confusing our minds with any scholastic terms, or antecedent principle.

back, it is absolutely necessary for you to It is proposed to you to ride on horsemake a choice, for it is very clear that you must either go or not; there is no medium, you must absolutely do the one or the other. So far it is demonstrated that the will is not free. You will get on horseback? why? Because I will to

do so, an ignoramus will say. ply is an absurdity, nothing can be done This reis caused by what? the agreeable idea without reason or cause. Your will then which is presented to your brain; the predominant, or determined idea; but, you will say, cannot I resist an idea which predominates over me? No, for what would be the cause of your resistance? an idea by which your will is swayed still more despotically.

With all my heart. But do not tell receive your will. You will then necesYou receive your ideas, and, therefore, the fakirs. And let us, above all, re-sarily; consequently, the word liberty member, that if a philosopher would belongs not to will in any sense. be of service to human society, he must announce a God.

FREE-WILL.

FROM the commencement of the time in which men began to reason, philosophers have agitated this question, which theologians have rendered unintelligible by their absurd subtleties upon grace. Locke is perhaps the first, who, without having the arrogance of announcing ageneral principle, has examined human nature by analysis. It has been disputed for three thousand years, whether the will is free or not; Locke shows, that the question is absurd, and that liberty cannot belong to the will any more than colour and motion.

What is meant by the expression to be free? It signifies power, or rather it has no sense at all. To say that the will can, is in itself as ridiculous as if we said that it is yellow, or blue, round, or square.

You ask me, how thought and will are formed within you? I answer, that I know nothing about it. know how the world was formed. We know how ideas are created, than I I no more are only allowed to grope in the dark in reference to all that inspires our incomprehensible machine.

be called free. A free-will is a word abWill, then, is not a faculty which can solutely void of sense; and that which to say, will without cause, is a chimera scholars have called indifference, that is unworthy to be combatted.

power of doing what we will? I would In what then consists liberty? In the go into my cabinet, the door is open, I door is shut and I remain where I am, I remain freely? Let us explain ourselves; But say you, if the

am free to enter.

you then exercise the power that you possess of remaining, you possess this power, but not the power of going out.