varieties of tint, and those which occur in morbid states of the system, depend upon the presence of similar cells filled with pigment, or originate in some other manner. (P. 89.) The last words in italics, are surely a very strange mode of escaping a physiological difficulty. We, however, do not think that changes induced by accident or disease in the colour of skin are to be considered identical with the permanent hue of the negro, though we have no objection to admit them as collateral arguments in favour of the opinion, that the European and African are descended from one stock. See what our author says, in contradistinction to Flourens, who considers the discolouration which takes place (as we do), from various causes in the skin of white men, as totally different in kind, and having the seat in a different structure, from the cause of blackness in the negro. The former change, according to him, depends merely on a hue imparted by temporary causes to the cuticle or scarf-skin, while the colour of a black man arises from a particular membrane entirely wanting in the white races. Many facts were long ago on record in the works of medical authors, and others were known of almost daily occurrence, which are scarcely intelligible, on the supposition maintained by M. Floureus. For example, a variety of disordered states of the constitution are known to occasion a very deep tinge of the skin in Europeans. Many females are well known to have a dark tinge extended over a considerable space round the manimæ during the period of pregnancy, which disappears afterwards, in a great measure. The change of colour which happens at such periods, varies in its degree of intensity, as well as in the space occupied by it; and in some individuals it has been known to cover the abdomen, and even to affect the whole body. These facts are quite sufficient to prove that, independently of the influence of solar heat, a physical change may take place connected with the state of the constitution, which imparts a black hue to the skin, similar to that which is natural to the African race.-(P. 85.) As remarked above, we do not think the cases parallel; nor is that cited from Bomare (in Blumenbach), of a French peasant, whose abdomen became entirely black during pregnacy; nor the account given by Camper, of a female of rank, who had naturally a white skin and beautiful complexion, but whenever she became pregnant, began immediately to grow brown; nor that of Dr. Strach, quoted by Soemmering, of a man, who, after a fever, became as black as a negro; nor the fact mentioned by Blumenbach, that he possessed a portion of skin taken from the abdomen of a beggar, which is as black as that of an African; nor the cases recorded by Haller, Ludwig, and Albinus-all these were abnormal or diseased action of the vascular system. Neither are those cases to be considered as parallel, in which the negro becomes blanched-a case of which is recorded in the 57th volume of the "Phil. Trans." It is true that Klinkosch mentions the case of a negro, who, from black became yellow; but this is a common occurrence in sickly negroes in the West Indies. Caldani also relates the circumstance of a negro, a shoemaker at * Camper's words are very strong :-Vers la fin de sa grossesse ille devenait une veritable negresse. Venice, who, though black in infancy, gradually lost his African complexion, became lighter, and at length presented the appearance of a man labouring under jaundice. These are clearly cases of disease, and prove nothing. As well might we argue that the blue colour of the fat of the turtle (which becomes greenish when cooked), is owing to the foramen ovale being open, because when such an occurrence takes place in the human subject, the skin becomes blue, or the patient labours under what nosologists term morbus cœruleus. In support of his peculiar views, the author has been more fortunate, we think, in adducing the fact of the existence of a race of hogs with solid hoofs, which, it cannot be denied, are of the same species as the common cleft-hoof breed. The same remark applies to his citation of the well-known case of Lambert, the "Porcupine Man," who was exhibited before the Royal Society, in 1731. In place of the ordinary skin, he had a covering, as described by Machin, which was like a thick case, fitting exactly every part of his body. This case presented the appearance of ragged bark or hide; and to render it still more hideous and revolting, in some places it was copiously furnished with bristles. The face, the palms, and the soles, were natural, so that they appeared to the spectator to be naked. This covering would seem to have partaken more of the nature of horn than anything else, for it was insensible; and on being cut or scarified, neither emitted blood, nor caused pain. He changed this horny armour every autumn, by which time it had attained the thickness of three quarters of an inch. It is singular that no attempts seem to have been made to preserve the exuviæ; because we are further told by Machin, that it was "thrust off by a new skin that came up underneath." This skin resembled no natural integument, with which those who describe it were acquainted. While one compared it to the bark of a tree, others thought it looked like seal-skin, others like the skin of an elephant, or the covering of the legs of a rhinoceros; and others, and with some show of reason, likened it to a number of warts uniting and extending over the surface of the body; for the bristly parts, which were chiefly confined to the region of the abdomen and sides, appeared, and rustled when touched," like the quills of a hedgehog shorn off within an inch of the skin." Some time after Machin's account of this lusus naturæ, Baker communicated a second notice of it to the Royal Society. The man was at this time forty; and Baker says, he was a good-looking (?) well-shaped (?) man, of florid countenance; and what is more extraordinary, considering the previous description, that when his body and hands were covered, he seemed nothing different from other people. But (continues Baker), except his head and face, the palms of his hands, and the soles of his feet, his skin is all over covered in the same manner as in the year 1731; of which, therefore, I shall trouble you with no further description than what you find in M. Machin's account above mentioned, only begging leave to observe that this covering seemed to me most nearly to resemble an innumerable company of warts, of a dark brown colour and cylindrical figure, rising to a like height, and growing as close as possible to one another, but so stiff and elastic, that when the hand is drawn over them they make a rustling noise. When I saw this man in the month of September, they were shedding off in several places, and young ones of a paler brown observed succeeding in their room, which he told me happens annually in some of the autumn or winter months; and then he is commonly let blood, to prevent some little sickness which he is subject to whilst they are falling off. He has had the small-pox, and has been twice salivated, in hopes of getting rid of this disagreeable covering; during which disorders the warts came off, and his skin appeared white and smooth like that of other people, but on his recovering, soon became as it was before. His health at other times has been very good during his whole life. But the most extraordinary circumstance of this man's life, is, that he has had six children (!) all with the same rugged covering as himself; the first appearance whereof, in them, as well as in him, came on in about nine weeks after the birth. Only one of them is living, a very pretty boy, eight years of age, whom I saw and examined with his father, and who is exactly in the same condition; it appears therefore past all doubt, that a race of people may be propagated by this man, having such rugged coats and coverings as himself; and if this should ever happen, and the accidental original be forgotten, it is not impossible they might be deemed a different species of mankind. The eleventh section is dedicated to a physological examination of the nature of wool and hair; while the labours and opinions of Bidder, Gürlt, Grant, and Carpenter, upon the nature of the latter are criticised and examined. But they do not in our opinion possess any interest for the general readerthe whole pith of their doctrines and discoveries being centered in this paragraph from Carpenter*" That each of the cells contained in the hair-bud or bulb, gives origin to a bundle of fibres, in the same manner as does that of the certical substances of the feather; and that the fibres are really, in both instances, elongated secondary cells." This we believe is the general opinion, so far as regards the nature of hair. With reference to wool, there are certain other peculiarities which distinguish it in a marked manner from hair. It had been conjectured (our author says) by Monge, and others, that the felting quality of wool is owing to the rough nature of the surface of its filaments, and that these filaments have a feathered or barbed edge; but the honour of discovering and proving this property of wool is due to Youatt. This author proved that wool is distinguished from hair by its serrated edges, and that When the fibre is viewed as an opaque object, the serrations are found to result from a structure resembling a series of inverted cones, encircling a central stem, the apex of one cone being received into the base of the superior one; each cup-like cone having indented edges, directed from root to point.—(P. 101.) Hair, although sometimes covered with scales or rugosities, has no serrations, or tooth-like projections. The hair of a tiger is covered with scales, like those of the back of a sole, * 66 "Principles of General and Comparative Physiology." By Dr. W B. Carpenter. 2nd Ed. London 1841. while in the wool of the same animal the serrations are distinct and numerous.-(Idem.) Thus, then, the difference between wool and hair may be simply said to be, that hair is imbricated or scaly; wool toothed or serrated. But there are many kinds of wool produced by breeds of sheep, not merinos, in which this property of the serrated edge cannot be discovered. But even in these the filament is very different from hair, being of unequal thickness, and having rough uneven edges; whereas the filament of hair is a smooth and even-sided tube, and nearly of equal calibre. These facts are advanced by the author, to introduce the following arguments deduced from his hair, that the negro is of the same stock as the Circassian and all other varieties of the human race: A careful observation, with the aid of the microscope, will convince every one who makes it, if I am not much mistaken, that the hair of the African is not wool, but merely a curled and twisted hair. I have seen and examined the filaments of hair belonging to different races of men, and have compared them with the filaments of wool from the Southdown sheep, with the assistance of Mr. Estlin, who is skilful and long-practised in the use of the microscope, with the aid of glasses magnifying about 400 times. Hairs of a Negro, of a Mulatto, of Europeans, and of some Abyssinians, sent to me by M. d'Abbadie, the celebrated traveller, were, together with the wool of a Southdown sheep, viewed both as transparent and opaque bodies. The filament of wool had a very rough and irregular surface, though no serrations, distinctly so termed, were perceptible. The hair of the Negro, which was extremely unlike that of wool, and of all the other varieties mentioned, had the appearance of a cylinder with smooth surface; they all appeared more or less filled with a dark colouring matter, which, however, did not entirely destroy their transparency. The colouring matter was apparently much more abundant in the hair of the Negro than in the others. The Abyssinian hair was also very dark, but so far diaphanous that a riband-like band appeared running down through the middle of a cylindriform tube; and the Mulatto hair resembled the Abyssinian in this respect. The filament of European hair seemed almost transparent; it had the appearance of an empty tube, coated internally with something of a dingy or dusky colour, which only prevented it from being quite pellucid. European hair of a light colour had the same appearance, but was still less darkened. From these observations, I am convinced that the Negro has hair, properly so called, and not wool. One difference between the hair of a Negro and that of an European, consists in the more curled and frizzled condition of the former. This, however, is only a difference in the degree of crispation, some European hair being likewise very crisp. Another difference is the greater quantity of colouring matter or pigment in the hair of the Negro. It is very probable that this quality is connected with the former, as its cause, though we cannot determine in what manner one depends upon another; but as these properties vary simultaneously, and are in proportion one to another, we infer that they do not depend upon independent causes.-(Pp. 103-4.) The twelfth section treats cursorily of the varieties of form and configuration, and of the sub-division of races into particular groups. But we are not aware that any analysis would repay the labour of reduction; consequently we pass on to the thirteenth section, in which the principal forms of the skull, and the Here again we meet with these ifs. what he writes ? If he does, why if it? Does the author really believe modes of measuring it, adopted by anatomists, are described. We are told that the prognathous skull, or that in which a prolongation or extension of the jaws forward is very remarkable, is most strongly developed in some of the tribes of Western Africa. They are found also in the Eastern Ocean : And the Pelagian negroes of the great Austral islands, as well as the Alfurian or Australian races, have the general form of their skulls of a similar description, though in other respects different from the prognathous heads of the African people.-(P. 109.) The author then remarks, that it has been said that the form of the head in the negro makes some approach to the chimpanzee and other simiæ, but this is only true in a very slight degree; and this fact is sufficiently attested by the engravings of four skulls; viz., one of an European, another of a Negro, a third of a Chimpanzee, and a fourth of an Orang. The three ways of viewing the skull are then alluded to; which, taken jointly, enable us to form a correct idea of the whole of its characters. These three views are first, the lateral view of Camper, or as it is oftener called the facial line. The second, is Blumembach's Norma Verticalis, or vertical line; that is the form the skull presents, and the measurement of its area, when we look down upon the vertex. The third has been proposed by Owen, who Pointed out the importance of comparing the figures given by the basis of the skull, or the under surface of the cranium, the lower jaw being removed. -(P. 110.) When all these views are taken into account, we obtain a complete idea of the head, for the comparison of human races. As Camper was the first physiological anatomist that attempted to distinguish and describe the various forms which the skulls of various races of men assume, it will, perhaps, not be uninteresting to insert here his own account of this method. The basis on which the distinction of nations is founded, may be displayed by two straight lines; one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius, to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of the forehead, and falling thence on the most advancing part of the upper jaw-bone, the head being viewed in profile. In the angle produced by these two lines, may be said to consist, not only the distinctions between the skulls of the several species of animals, but, also those which are found to exist between different nations; and it might be concluded, that nature has availed herself, at the same time, of this angle to mark out the diversities of the animal kingdom, and to establish a sort of scale from the inferior tribes up to the most beautiful forms which are found in the human species. Thus it will be found, that the heads of birds display the smallest angle, and that it always becomes of greater extent, in proportion as the animal approaches more nearly to the human figure. Thus there is one species of the ape tribe, in which the head has a facial angle of 42 degrees; in another animal of the family, which is one of those simiæ most approximating in figure to mankind, the facial angle contains exactly 50 degrees. Next to this is the head of the African negro, which, as well as that of the Kalmuck, forms an angle of 70 degrees; while the angle discovered in the heads of Europeans, contains 80 degrees. On this difference of 10 degrees in the facial angle, the superior beauty of the European depends; while that high character * Our author spells the word chimpantsi. |