Zigabenus, Rupertus, Thomas Aquinas, Hugo de St. Caro, Albert, Bonaventura, Nicolaus de Lyra, Gerson, Wessel, Huss, Paulus Burgensis, Laurentius Valla, James Faber Stapulensis, and Erasmus. Many of these writers aspire to nothing higher than the compilation of extracts from the writings of the fathers. Most of them are imbued with the same spirit and principles which prevailed in the earlier centuries; and whatever attempts they made at original exposition, are tinged with the characteristics of the ancient author, with whom they claimed to be most familiar, or whom they thought worthy to be set up as their model. Of this valuable chapter, our space will not permit us to speak more fully.

Our author's seventh chapter describes the various modern systems of interpretation. The first is the moral interpretation, and owes its origin to the philosopher, Kant.~ The elementary view of it is contained in the following extract from his works. "The historical part of the Scriptures, which contributes nothing to make men better, is purely indifferent, and may be disposed of as we please. The moral amendment of mankind is the proper object of the entire religion of reason; and therefore the religion of reason contains the supreme principle of all scriptural exegesis."

The second, he denominates the psychologico-historical interpretation. It is developed chiefly by Paulus and Eichhorn. While it admits the events narrated, e. g., in the gospels, as facts, and not mythi, fictions or legends, it also denies the reality of miracles, as being contrary to reason; so that a distinction is carefully drawn between truth, and the impressions of the sacred writers. This theory allows unbounded license, it will be seen at once, for the rejection of whatever may be repugnant to any one's reason, and thus lays the foundation for the entire denial of the doctrine of divine inspiration.

The third system is the accommodation system, usually attributed to Semler, and arising, perhaps, in part, out of the influence of the Cartesian philosophy. The main point of this theory is the position that our Lord and his apostles adapted themselves to the ignorance and prejudices of the Jews. It impugns the motives of the Son of God. It accuses him of dishonesty and want of candor; of lowering

the character of his doctrines and his morality to meet the demands of a corrupt age, and of linking his teachings to the prevalent systems of false religion, and the carnal notions of the Jewish people.

The fourth system is the mythic interpretation. "This system proceeds on the assumption that the historical parts of the Old and New Testaments were not actual occurrences, but the dress which covers truths lying beyond the physical world. Whatever appears strange or miraculous, such as the appearances of angels, the history of creation, the account of man's temptation and fall, etc., is regarded as a mythus, i. e., a peculiar dress suited to the rude notions of the times in which the writers lived." This system is advocated by Bauer, Meyer, Weisse, Strauss and others.

The fifth mode of interpretation is the rationalistic. "Rationalism, says our author, has so many varieties, that it is difficult to define it, or to describe its prominent features." It brings the divine revelation to the standard of human reason. "The Rationalists generally take a system of philosophy, to which, as a touchstone, they bring the doctrines of revelation. Whatever parts of the Bible appear to be inconsistent with this standard, are discarded from their creed. It does not seek in the Bible the ideas of the sacred writers, but those of a favorite philosopher viewed as the products of pure reason." This system, of which so much has been said within the last few years, is essentially a system of thorough infidelity. With an appearance of reverence for divine truth, and of an earnest desire to apprehend its true meaning, it has no esteem for the word of God as a revelation from heaven, to be received as the voice of Jehovah. "It suffers little," says Davidson, "of a purely religious nature to stand in the Bible; and even that which it leaves untouched is so affected by the breath of its skepticism, as to yield no salutary or solid nutriment to the hungry spirit. It levels the mountains of God into plains, and removes the ancient landmarks which ages have justly venerated. Nor does it spare the holiest discourses of Jesus, but reduces even these to barrenness by the withering blight of its presence.'

"Ac

The sixth system of interpretation is the pietist. cording to this system, the sacred text is, in a great measure, overlooked, and established rules of interpretation neglected.

With it, the inward light (lumen internum) is the regulating principle. This alleged internal inspiration furnishes explanations independently of scientific investigation. The written word is tacitly supplanted, and the necessity of learning, virtually denied. Impulses of feeling and subjective views are raised above the literal sense. The right understanding of the holy oracles is subordinated to individual impressions. Thus the Quakers and some of the Pietists of Germany regard the external words of Scripture as incomplete and inefficient, referring every thing to that internal light, which guides to true faith and a pure morality." It is unnecessary to show the folly of this system. It carries on its face its own sentence of condemnation. It opens the door to the most fanciful interpretations. It is based on no settled principle. It refers to the Holy Spirit whatever vagaries may arise in weak and unstable minds; and thus makes the Deity responsible for all the errors which may be dreamed into importance by a disordered imagination.

Dr. Davidson, after setting forth these various erroneous modes of interpretation, proceeds to state the principles of a true and sound criticism. In this department of his work, he harmonizes, in the main, with the canons laid down in the standard treatise of Ernesti. He differs, however, from the comments of Prof. Stuart, in respect to the twofold significancy of some passages, particularly in the Psalms; judging that, as the Bible is a peculiar book, it is not unnatural that there should be some peculiarity in its interpretation.

In addition to the excellences of the work, already enumerated, are the solutions of difficulties arising from the alleged discrepancy of the various parts of the historical Scriptures, one with another, and with profane writers; also, the investigation and explanation of phrases in frequent use, and the examination of opinions, expressed by various authors on hermeneutics, which require defence or correction.

We are

not at liberty to proceed further. But we hope the importers will, at some early day, permit the American public to look into the book, in a cis-Atlantic dress, with the changes already indicated, and reap the benefit which such a manual is adapted to yield. EDITOR.

VOL. VIII.-NO. XXXII....

79

ARTICLE IX.

LITERARY NOTICES.

1. Manual of Classical Literature. From the German of J. J. ESCHENBURG, with additions, by N. W. FISKE. Fourth edition. Philadelphia. 1843.

Few books have done more to enlarge the young student's field of vision, and to stimulate him to efforts for a more comprehensive knowledge of antiquity, than the Manual of Prof. Fiske. What light has been shed on this whole department of study, during the last quarter of a century! What new treasures of knowledge have been laid open to the ambitious student! The object of the Manual is, partly, to present the results, in a systematic but condensed form, of all the investigations that have hitherto been made on the subject, and, partly, to furnish a complete guide to all the helps which the maturer scholar may need, in extending his knowledge to the details of those investigations. While this two-fold character of the work fits it for two different classes of readers, the younger student is relieved of the incumbrance of what is not adapted to his wants, by its being thrown into a body of notes, compressed into a very narrow compass by the smallness of the type; and the advanced scholar finds, for the most part, a new and accurate digest of what is known on the subjects included in the author's plan, and is guided at once to the literary notices, by the smallness of the type, which, in matters of mere reference, causes little or no injury to the eye. Thus, the amount of valuable matter brought within a moderate compass, without materially increasing the expense, is truly surprising. Indeed, we know not of a work in the English language, which could take the place of this.

The present edition is distinguished from the preceding, which was noticed in this Review, Vol. V, pp. 289–304, by a new and greatly improved arrangement, by several corrections and additions, particularly in the notes, and most of all, by the increased number of the plates in the Manual itself, besides a supplementary volume of plates, which may be procured or omitted, at the option of the purchaser. Perfection is not, indeed, attained in the new edition; nor do we think it attainable, in a work of such a nature. Where so many particulars are included in a single production, minor errors and omissions will always be discovered, at least by the author, if by no one else. Some of those, which we have noticed in the present instance, would not have escaped the eye of the indefatigable compiler, had the time which he desired been allowed him, in the preparation, and which, he intimates in his preface, will be devoted to the next edition. We venture to suggest, that it would probably be advantageous to the design of the author, if he would sift his materials a little more closely still, so that whatever should be judged of no great use, doubtful, or remote from the main object of the book, might give place to other matter, which, for want of room, is now necessarily excluded, or too much compressed. A history of the study of classical literature would be highly appropriate, in such a work; and we learn, from a remark in the appendix, that Prof. Fiske was fully aware of this. "But," he adds, "the limits of the work forbid it; we

can only give some references." Though we do not call in question the value of the "Introduction to the archæology of literature and art,' occupying the space from the 307th to the 321st page, yet, on account of its being more connected with the general history of literature and art, than with the history of classical literature in particular, we should be willing to see it very much abridged, and the gibberish of Lord Monboddo entirely expunged, in order to furnish a place for some other things, which cannot be so well dispensed with in a manual of classical literature.

2. Geological Cosmogony; or, an Examination of the Geological Theory of the Origin and Antiquity of the Earth, and of the Causes and Object of the Changes it has undergone. By a Layman. New York: Robert Carter. 1843. pp. 167, 12mo.

The present work has indubitable claims to the reputation of originality, and the Christian geologist will not fail to read it with devout interest and attention. The author seems to be perfectly familiar with all the geological authors and theories, and writes like a man who is at home in his subject. He has evidently thought upon it intensely and independently. He commences with an examination of the prevailing theories of geology, with special reference to their connection with the Scriptures. Having presented the theories of Buckland, Lyell, J. Pye Smith, and other eminent writers, he shows that they are incompetent to meet the demands of the case; that, however ingenious they may be, and however satisfactory in accounting for many appearances in the structure of the earth, there are still other phenomena, intimately related to these, to which they furnish no adequate solution. After this, he suggests the probability of the geological changes having been occasioned by the apostasy of man. He says:

"Now the geologist does not and cannot possibly know what condition the material of the sedimentary rocks were in, prior to the process of stratification. If that process commenced after the fall of man, and if those materials existed in such a state as to be rapidly moved by the causes which were brought to act upon them, then the formation of the strata would not require a prolonged period. If, at the creation, those materials were so combined and disposed as to provide spontaneously for the growth and support of the greatest possible exuberance of plants and animals; if, peradventure, the waters, when first gathered into seas, occupied no more than one third or one fourth part of the surface of the globe, instead of two thirds, as at present; if the prolific soil of the remainder was, during the first centuries, stocked with all the variety of plants and animals, and the seas with the teeming myriads of which the fossil remains give note; if, in consequence of the apostasy, it was requisite that a new and far different combination and arrangement of those materials should take place, by which the soil should become comparatively sterile, and spontaneously productive rather of noxious than of useful plants, rendering labor, art and the use of metals necessary on the part of man, and forbidding the continued existence of the plants and animals which have become extinct; if such were the course of things, which the Scriptures more than permit, then may we conclude that causes adequate to the effects produced and to the rapid accomplishment of the changes were brought into operation.

"Without proposing or intending any formal theory of second causes or modes of operation, it may be proper to say, that such a course of things, while it would comport with the historical and the moral inculcations of the Bible, and perhaps may claim to be required by them, would provide for the exigencies of the case. It would provide for the animals whose relics are inhumed, and for the extirpation of those not needful to man. It would provide for the vegetable growths which furnish materials for the fossil flora and for the coal formation; it would provide for those consequences of the apostasy of man, which, conformably to the intimations of the inspired record, are actually realized in his temporal condition, his shortened life, his subjection to toil and privation."