Tree enemies. Fish and their ways. A central power station. A blast furnace. The manufacture of steel. How our building is ventilated. Mirrors and lenses. Levers and pulleys. A modern steamship. A boys' camp. Juvenile courts. Whistler. Helen Keller. Nature as seen in the works of characteristics of fication. The -'s style. Figures of speech. Versi 12 Explain in whatever way seems most forceful what is meant by one of the following, considering with great care what devices will be most serviceable in driving home the essential ideas. Resort to narration or description, if by so doing you can gain clearness and force. Give illustrations, real or fancied. Homesickness. Thrift. Good-heartedness. An amiable disposition. Winsomeness. Jealousy. Pluck. Conceit. Extravagance. Envy. An easy-going fellow. A grind. A tease. A cheeky fellow. A blunt fellow. Spunk. Honor. 13 Explain as clearly and as briefly as you can what each of the following proverbs means: The best mirror is an old friend. Vice makes virtue shine. The greater the man, the greater the crime. The crutch of Time does more than the club of Hercules. Learning makes a man fit company for himself. A cat may look at a king. The worst wheel of the cart creaks loudest. The gods bring thread for a web begun. Stretch not your arm farther than your sleeve will go. Mock not a cobbler for his black thumbs. 14 Show the meaning of each of the following by expanding it into a simile. The first, for example, may be expanded thus: Just as still water runs deep, so men who do but little talking may be deep thinkers. Still water runs deep. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Thick grass is easier mowed than thin. Beauty is a blossom. A good name keeps its luster in the dark. Straight trees have crooked roots. The empty vessel makes the loudest sound. A fine diamond may be ill set. 15 Make clear one of the following proverbs by means of an anecdote, a short story, or a personal experience: It never rains but it pours. A stout heart breaks ill luck. He who scatters thorns, let him never go barefoot. Forecast is better than hard work. The wine always tastes of the cask. 16 Selecting one of the following adages, show its force through varied illustration of its application: In a calm sea, every man is a pilot. Honor and ease are seldom bedfellows. Much wants more and loses all. A good name is better than riches. The hand that gives, gathers. Black will take no other color. A word spoken is an arrow let fly. All are not thieves that the dogs bark at. 17 Use one of the adages already given, as a text for a moral essay of some length. Try not only to make clear the meaning of the adage but to make the force of the proverb deeply felt. Plan carefully. 18 Write a review of some book recently read. Since this is an extremely difficult task, it may be well to lead up to it through class discussion. Here are questions to consider: What is the purpose of a book review? What are the main things to be told about any book? What should be told first? What should be told last? What are some of the evils to guard against? These and kindred questions having been considered, it will be well for the class, working together, to make a topical plan. 19 Write a brief summary of a lecture or a sermon that you have listened to recently. 20 Write a character sketch, selecting for a subject a person whom you know very well. First consider what traits are prominent in this person, then try to think how these traits are revealed. 21 Try again exercises 9, 10, and 11 in the chapter on Clearness. CHAPTER X ARGUMENT Definition Discourse employed to establish the truth or falsity of propositions is called argument. Because argument and exposition are commonly found together, the two terms are often confused; yet the difference between them is easily defined. The purpose of exposition is simply to explain; the purpose of argument is not only to explain but to prove. An essay setting forth various methods of learning to sing is expository; an essay designed to show convincingly that some one method of learning to sing is best is argumentative. Ways of How do we prove things? What are the methods commonly employed in establishing truth and falsity? Turning to the better known rhetorics, the average reader is not a little bewildered by the answers given to this simple question. He gains the impression that argumentation is an exceedingly perplexing topic. And so it is; yet the elementary processes of reasoning, employed by everyone many times a day, are so simple that there is no extreme difficulty in comprehending them. First, we seek to prove things by means of direct evidence or testimony. "I saw him do it; therefore I know it was done," we say, using our own eyes as witnesses. Direct Or, "Mr. Brown and Mr. Smith, whom I evidence trust, declare that they saw him do it; there- or testimony fore I am confident that it was done," we explain, calling to aid the testimony of others. Frequently the fact in question can be established only through expert testimony. "The builder assures me that the house can be erected for ten thousand dollars; therefore I believe that it can." And sometimes we appeal to a recognized authority, as is seen in the statements "I know that the word is correctly spelled, for I have looked it up in the dictionary;" "I know that the date of the Norman Conquest is 1066, for here is the statement in a reliable history;" "I am sure that I am right, for the government statistics fully support my contention." In all the cases cited, facts are established through direct testimony, expert or otherwise, the testimony in several instances being found in books that are considered authoritative. Second, we seek to prove, indirectly, through the method of comparison and example. That is, the case at hand is compared with similar cases all the facts Comparison and example concerning which are, apparently, well established; then an inference is drawn. A young man, for instance, may reason that since two or three of his friends have succeeded in working their way through college, he too should be able to work his way through. In his Speech on Conciliation Burke supports the contention that the American Colonies should be treated by the home government in a certain way by showing that this method of treatment has already been found beneficial in four other nearly parallel cases. Many times it is possible so to multiply examples that general laws are established. It having been observed a great many times that plants die when deprived of moisture, the law is established that moisture is necessary to all plant life. And hence it follows that a particular plant, for example a geranium, will die if deprived of moisture. Less certainly we reason that since every child we have ever known was fond of sweets, all children are fond of them, and therefore little Mary must be fond of them too. probability Third, we seek to prove through establishing antecedent probability. Will the grocer deliver his parcels before twelve? The order was telephoned at the Antecedent usual hour. The grocer promised to deliver the goods before noon. Heretofore he has kept his promises. It would be to his disadvantage to disappoint a good customer. It is not a busy season of the year; the clerk has plenty of time. The streets are not blocked. Everything seems to point to the conclusion that the parcels will arrive at the proper hour; there is a strong antecedent probability that they will. This method of reasoning is employed not only in determining what is likely to happen, but in determining what in the past caused a given effect. That is, it is employed not only in reasoning from cause to effect but from effect back to cause. Thus a teacher, finding his class poorly prepared to recite, and recalling that, the evening before, there was a celebration of a football victory, may conclude that the poor recitation was due probably due to the fact that the boys took part in the fun and did not study. There is an antecedent probability in favor of his assumption. Argument Fourth, we seek to prove by means of what is called argument from sign. "It is raining-I can hear it," one may say; or "Henry has hurt his ankle, for he is limping." It is this form that plays an important part in court trials. No one may have seen a certain crime committed; yet it may be possible, through pointing to this sign and that, to establish beyond reasonable doubt that there has been a criminal act. Thus it is seen that, in their simpler forms, the four ways of proving things are not difficult to understand; each represents a trail very familiar to all minds. Perplexity arises only when two or more of these simple methods of |