work-people. This division of the capital would have remained unaltered, whether the people had been paid for their labour in bread, and clothes, and habitations, or in wages which enabled them to purchase these necessaries. It was merely as a matter of convenience to both parties, that the wages were paid in money; and indeed, in some cases, the men preferred having a cottage and less wages, to more wages and no dwelling. However this matter was settled, Mr. Wallace always considered that his capital consisted of the three parts-implements of labour, the materials on which labour is employed, and the subsistence of labourers. Capital may exist in one only of these forms, or in two, or, as we have seen, in three; but it cannot exist in any form which does not belong to one of these three divisions."

Soon after, we fall in with an original character, of the name of Paul, a sort of philosopher in rags, who hires himself as a labourer at the works, and besides exerting himself as if he had the strength of ten men, lectures away on various subjects, with a singular emphasis and discretion; the following is the acute and happy definition which this Diogenes gives, of the origin and progress of Capital: "Let us hear your notion of the process, Paul.'

"I suppose it might occur to a shrewd man, finding a lump of the mineral melted in a very hot fire and hardened again, that it would make better tools than wood. He would heat his lump, and beat it with stones while it was hot, and bend it and notch it and sharpen it in a rude way, till he would be so much better off for tools than his neighbours, that they would try to get some like his. If they could not find any more ironstone, he would use his tools to dig or pick it out of the earth for them."

"Then, Paul, his tools would be his capital.'

"Certainly: his tools would be capital arising from labour, and tending to further production. His neighbours would pay him well in such produce as they could spare, for furnishing them with iron, and then they would all set about making tools. They would soon find, that they could get on faster and better by dividing their labour; and so one would keep up the fire, and another would see that the ore flowed into the hole as it should do, and another would beat it while soft, and another would notch it into a saw, and another sharpen it into an axe.'

666 Very well, then. As there must be labour before capital, there must be capital before division of labour.'

"To be sure. There would be nothing for them to divide their labour upon; if they had not the ironstone, which is their capital as much as the man's first tool is his. The more tools they make, the more ore they can procure.'

"So the division of labour assists the increase of capital.' "There is the beauty of it,' replied Paul. They play into one another's hands. Labour makes capital; capital urges to a division of labour; and a division of labour makes capital grow. When the people we are talking of are all supplied with tools,

(which have gone on improving all this time in the quality of the metal, as well as the make of the implements,) they begin to traffic with the next district, bartering their manufacture for whatever productions they may agree to take in exchange. As their manufacture improves, they get more wealth; and then again, as they get more wealth, their manufacture improves; they find new devices for shortening their labour; they make machines which do their work better than their own hands could do it, till an iron-work becomes what we see it here-a busy scene where man directs the engines whose labour he once performed; where earth and air, and fire and water, are used for his purposes as his will directs; and a hundred dwellings are filled with plenty, where, for want of capital, men once wrapped themselves in skins to sleep on the bare ground, and cut up their food with flints. So, now that I have given you the natural history of capital as I read it, I will wish you good morning, and go to my work.'

In chapter third, we have a long discussion betwixt Armstrong and Mr. Wallace, on the merit of their respective systems, from which we extract the succeeding clear and succinct description of the beneficial reaction of Capital and Labour upon each other.

"True. Capital owes its origin to labour; but labour is in its turn assisted and improved by capital to such a degree, that its productiveness is incalculably increased. Our labourers could no more send ship-loads of bar-iron abroad, without the help of the furnace, and forge, and machinery supplied by their masters, than their masters without the help of their labour.'

"Then the more valuable this capital is, the more abundant the material wrought-the more perfect the machinery, the better for the labourer. And yet all do not think so.'

"Because those who object to machinery do not perceive its true nature and office. Machinery, as it does the work of many men, or that which it would take one man a long time to do, may be viewed as hoarded labour. This, being set to work in addition to natural labour, yields a greatly-increased produce; and the gains of the capitalist being thus increased, he employs a yet larger portion of labour with a view to yet further gains: and so a perpetual progress is made."

Chapter fourth contains an account of the flourishing state of the concern, with some valuable observations on the nature of fixed and reproduceable capital, with, as usual, much interesting and profitable dialogue.

In the fifth chapter, we find our friend Paul turned a preacher of the Ranters, which appears to us out of character, he being much too sensible a fellow to do such a silly thing, having no spark of their maudlin fanaticism about him. After sermon, he lectures away to Mr. Wal

lace and Armstrong upon various subjects very cleverly, and, in particular, rates the latter soundly for his unsocial habits.

"But I pay for all I use.'

"You do, because you could have nothing without; but not a single service do you render to society that you could avoid, while the means are hourly within your reach. Every man in society ought to belong to one class of producers or the other, or to stimulate production by useful though unproductive labour. You are not like the labourer who adds to his employer's capital, nor yet like the capitalist, who, assisted by the labourer, increases the resources of society; nor yet like the professional man, who, by improving the social state, opens new demands for the comforts and pleasures of life. You would be a better citizen if you were a surgeon in the next town, or a partner in this concern, or the humblest labourer about the works.'

We now approach the winding up of the story: iron falls in price, the masters lower the wages, and the men grumble at that, as well as at the introduction of some new machinery, and a boy being killed by the latter, a riot ensues, in which part of the works are destroyed, and the result is, that the concern is entirely abandoned. We shall conclude our notice of the present Number of this admirable little work, with the following extract from the judicious and eloquent address of Mr. Wallace to his labourers at their final parting; an address which we would especially recommend to the study of our readers of the operative class.

"As no profit can be made, no production raised from the ground, or manufactured in the furnace or the loom, or conveyed over land and sea, without the union of capital and labour, it is clear that all attempts to divide the two are foolish and useless. As all profit is in proportion to the increase of labour and capital, as all the comforts every man enjoys become more common and cheap in proportion as these two grow in amount, it is clear that it must be for the advantage of every body, that labour and capital should be saved to the utmost, that they may grow as fast as possible. The more capital and labour, for instance, there is spent upon procuring and preparing mahogany, the more cheap will be mahogany tables and chairs, and the more common in the cottages of the working classes. In the same way, broad-cloth was once a very expensive article, because very few attempted to manufacture it; but now, when many more capitalists have set up their manufactories of broad-cloth, and much more labour is spent upon it, every decent man has his cloth coat for Sundays. In like manner, the more capital and labour can be saved to be employed in the iron-trade, the cheaper and more common will iron be; and if it be an evil to us that it is already cheaper, we must find a remedy in making it more common, more extensively

used, so that the quantity we sell may make up for the lowering of the price. It is plain, then, that all economy of capital and labour is a good thing for every body in the long run. How is this saving to be effected?

"Capital is made to grow by adding to it as much as can be spared of the profit it brings. We all know, that if a hundred pounds brings in five pounds interest at the year's end, and if two of the five pounds only are spent, the capital of the next year will be a hundred and three pounds, and the interest five pounds three shillings; and so on, every year. This is the way capital grows by saving. Labour does not grow by saving in like manner; but methods of improving and economizing it have been found; and more are invented every year. Labour is saved by machinery, when a machine either does what man cannot do so well, or when it does in a shorter time, or at a less expense, the work which man can do equally well in other respects. This last was the case with our new machinery. It did not, like the furnaces and rollers, do what man could not do: but it did in a quicker and cheaper manner what man had hitherto done. It was a saving of labour; and as all saving of labour is a good thing, our machinery was a good thing.

"You wish to interrupt me, I see. You wish to say that though it is a good thing for us capitalists, it is not for you labourers. Hear me while I show you the truth. If we could have brought back the state of the world to what it was four years ago; if we could have made the foreign iron-works melt into air, and some nearer home sink into the ground; if we could have made the demand what it once was, and have raised the prices to the highest ever known, you would not have cared whether we put up machinery or not, because there would have been employment enough for every body notwithstanding. You care for it now because it throws some people out of work: but you should remember that it has also kept many busy, who must be idle, now that it is destroyed. We should be as glad as you, if there was work enough for all the men and all the machinery together, that our concern could contain; but when changes, which we could not prevent or repair, brought before us the question, whether we should employ two-thirds of our people with machinery, or none without, we saw it to be for the interests of all, to set up our new labourers in the midst of the grumblings of the old. We tell you plainly, that we could not have employed any of you for the last six months, but for the saving caused by the new machinery; and that, now it is gone, we can employ none of you any longer.

"You may say that the county will repair our losses, and that we may soon build up what is destroyed, and go on as before. It is true that the damages must be paid out of the public fund; but is not so true that a remedy will thus be found for the distress which violence has brought upon you. The state of trade being what it is, and confidence being so completely destroyed between the two parties to the original contract, there is little encouragement to enter on a new one. My partner and his family will

depart immediately. I shall remain with a very few men under me, to assist in disposing of our stock and to wind up the concern; and then this place, lately so busy, and so fruitful of the necessaries and comforts of life to so many hundred persons, will present a melancholy picture of desertion and ruin. If, in after years, any of your descendants, enriched by the labours of generations, should come hither and provide the means of enriching others, may they meet with more success than we have done! May they have to do with men informed respecting the rights and interests of society, as happy in their prosperity as you once were, and more patient and reasonable in adversity!""

THE CHRISTIAN PIONEER.

GLASGOW, MARCH 31, 1832,

The

MARCH 15, the house of Messrs. Tibnam of Ditchingham, Bungay, Norfolk, was opened for the public worship of the One True God, by the Rev. W. J. Bakewell of Norwich, who delivered on the interesting occasion, a discourse on preaching Christ, to a crowded and very attentive audience of about 70 persons. This is the first attempt to establish the cause of Unitarianism in this town; and certainly Messrs. Tibnam are entitled to the gratitude of every friend of religious investigation, and of pure religion, for thus fearlessly encountering the hosts of prejudice, bigotry, and intolerance; and affording a place of refuge for the conscientious disciple of Christ, who adheres to his command and example in worshipping the Father as the only true God, to whom alone the kingdom, the power, and the glory are ascribed. Christian zeal and intrepidity of these Unitarians, "whose hands minister to their own necessities," merit the serious consideration of not a few, who profess to have adopted the same religious sentiments, but who yet continue to countenance a form of worship abhorrent from their principles, and support a church establishment which they believe to be most injurious to the interests of Christian truth, charity, and liberty. Did Unitarians in every place manifest the same conscientious regard for religious truth, exhibited by the humble individuals at Bungay, there would, long ago, have been flourishing Unitarian congregations in almost every town in the kingdom. Do those believers, with a coat of many colours, who can attend Unitarian worship in the metropolis, or where a congregation is established, where they have the countenance of men of their own station, or pass through the crowd unnoticed, but who cautiously avoid the proper manifestation of their sentiments in the country, and aid not the beginnings of Reformation, ever think of the declaration of their lowly Master, "Whosoever shall be ashamed of me and of my words, of him shall the Son of Man be ashamed"? Religion is the one thing needful. It is worth every thing or nothing. Its truths are of paramount importance, or they are less than nothing and