thrice repeated the words: "O Lord, open Thou my lips, and my mouth shall show forth Thy praise," whereupon the Superior offered a prayer that he might be protected from the spirit of pride. Among some of the English Augustinians he received a second blessing in the refectory immediately before beginning the reading.1

During the reading "profoundest silence" (summum silentium) is commanded to be observed. The Superior, however, may break the silence to explain a difficult passage, or to correct mistakes made by the reader. The immediate correction of such mistakes is an old custom. The Religious are forbidden to gaze about them, but are to take their food with eyes modestly cast down, not looking around more than may be necessary to minister to the wants of those who may be seated near them.

Conversation at dinner, after a brief Scripture reading, is allowed in many excellent communities on special occasions, greater feasts, etc.. No one, however, at such times, should presume to begin the conversation except the Superior.

Wants, so far as possible, are to be made known by signs. It is hardly necessary to add that the true Religious will not exercise choice regarding his food. He will help himself as it comes, choosing neither the best nor the worst on the dish, for even to give himself the worst may be an act of self-will. The wisest 1 Clark, Observances of Barnwell Priory, p. liv.

2 See St. Benedict, Regula, cap. 38; and Clark, Observances of Barnwell Priory, p. 159. Since 1251 the Dominican Constitutions have required a corrector in every Convent. See Const. Frat. S. Ord. Praed., p. 94.

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Religious legislators have always held that no fasting, or other acts of self-denial, of such a nature as to attract notice, are to be permitted without the consent of the Superior.1 St. Basil returns again and again to this subject in his Rules. He allows no one to practise any mortification according to his own judgment. "Abstinence," he says, "is not placed only in the absence of what belongeth to food, but in the entire separation from one's own will." The Religious is" to fast with the brethren and to eat together with them," unless he has permission to the contrary. He who seeks "to fast of his own will

while he so doeth is a stranger to piety . . . If anyone considereth that he hath need of anything more, whether by fasting or vigils, or in anything else whatsoever, let him disclose the matter to those entrusted with the common charge of this very thing. Let him keep to the thing approved by them."4 Slight practices of mortification that would not draw attention, however, are to be allowed in the refectory, indeed recommended.

The food set before the Religious should be plain, plentiful and substantial. Mere delicacies should rarely be placed on the table, although on great feasts some relaxation may be permitted without hurt. Anciently, three dishes were allowed at the principal meal of the day, and this rule still obtains in many of the best regulated monastic houses. Superiors 1 St. Francis de Sales, Visitation Constitutions, iii.

2 St. Basil, Reg. Brev. Tract., 128.

3 Ibid., 129.

4 Ibid., 138. Those who wish to go further into this subject will find many other strong expressions in St. Basil's Rules.

should be watchful of the particular needs of their subjects, taking care that those who engage in heavy manual labour, and those in delicate health, be served with food of such kind and quantity as suits their wants; at the same time being cautious lest physical need be made the occasion of an undue or even sinful indulgence.

The Constitutions or Custumals of various communities regulate the general question of food, its quality, quantity, frequency of meals, etc. It should always be a point of definite regulation under the proper authorities, as it is a matter of grave importance in the life of the monastery. It should never be left to the judgment of subordinates. Anciently, the whole question of the food of Religious was regarded as of such importance as to be made the subject of repeated legislation by the Councils of the Church.1

Tardiness at meals has always been regarded as a serious fault, and the older Rules deal particularly with it. Those who come after grace has been said should not take their seats until they have presented themselves before the Superior or the senior at table, and received permission to do so. Frequent tardiness would be a matter for discipline. The Benedictine Rule forbids frequent offenders being admitted to the common table.

On the conclusion of the thanksgiving after meals it is an ancient custom for the community to go in procession directly from the table to the chapel for brief devotions, the Miserere, or other psalms, being

1 e.g., the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle in A.D. 816, and that of Cloveshoo, in England, in A.D. 747.

said or sung as they proceed. The reader and the servers remain in the refectory, however, for their meal at a second table.

IV. Of the Chapter of Faults

The Chapter of Faults is a meeting of all the professed members of the community at which public acknowledgment is made of all external breaches of the Rule and Constitutions, of the regulations of the monastery, or of the known will of the Superior. The time and method of conducting the Chapter of Faults is regulated by each community for its own members. In some the Chapter is held daily; in others, once a week. The older communities generally held it daily. The Chapter of Faults is an ancient observance. St. Basil refers to it,1 and in some form all monastic orders have required it.

In Chapter, neither sins as such, nor interior faults, should be mentioned, but only those external breaches that are contrary to formal Religious obligation. One would not, for example, mention a violation of the spirit of poverty, or of any other virtue to which he is bound. A fault may have to be acknowledged that has also the character of sin against God, but it is not mentioned because it is a sin, but because it is contrary to the Rule or the Superior's directions.

The acknowledgment in Chapter is not to be regarded as a confession to God, but as an account rendered by the Religious to the community, of failures to fulfil his part of the covenant which he made with the community at profession. This

1 St. Basil, Regulae Fusius Tractatae, 26.

account should be rendered fully and conscientiously, and to do this a Religious has to keep some record, mental or otherwise, of the delinquencies he has detected in himself. In order that his acknowledgment be full it is always safer to keep some written record. This is the more needful if the Chapter is held at intervals of many days.

A part of the remote preparation for the Chapter of Faults is to keep the Rule and Constitution, the Custumal, the local house regulations, etc., fresh in one's mind. They should frequently be reviewed in private, even if they are publicly read to the Religious. Experience shows that the observance of minor directions and obediences can easily be neglected, almost unconsciously, unless one is constantly examining himself explicitly by the Rule, point by point.

In some of the older communities, the Religious not only accused himself, but certain brethren who observed in him breaches of discipline were required to accuse him of them. This practice is in accord with the disciplinary system that was universal some centuries ago, but is hardly suited to our times, where espionage of every kind is wisely deprecated as harmful to all concerned.1 The Superior, however, is always free to remind his subjects of faults that they have overlooked, and, in many cases, especially if the fault be serious or habitual, it would be his bounden duty to do so.

Acknowledgments should be made with perfect

1 Doyle says that it would not be tolerated among the Benedictines at the present day. See The Teaching of St. Benedict, p. 246.