A considerable number of books were written during the very darkest periods of the middle ages. They treat of various subjects connected with theology and the church. Several of the authors were evidently studious men, and were, for the time in which they lived, extensively acquainted with books. It should also be stated, that they were certainly not so ignorant of Scripture, so far as the letter of it was concerned, as is generally supposed. In looking over the writers of the middle ages, down to the monkish chroniclers and legendary taletellers, the reader finds frequent use made of Scripture language; the application of it, however, shows, in a great number of instances, a deplorable ignorance of its proper sense, and but little sympathy with its true spirit. "It is the most striking circumstance in the literary annals of the dark ages, that they seem to us still more deficient in native, than in acquired ability. The mere ignorance of letters has sometimes been a little exaggerated, and admits of certain qualifications; but a tameness and mediocrity, a servile habit of merely compiling from others, runs through the writers of these centuries. It is not only that much was lost, but that there was nothing to compensate for it, nothing of original genius in the province of imagination: and but two extraordinary men, Scotus Erigena and Gerbert, may be said to stand out from the crowd in literature and philosophy."* Hallam, Introd. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. 11. What might be the average state of the clergy, in reference to the possession of knowledge, during the middle ages, is an interesting question, but one, like many others, difficult to answer. There can be no doubt that many ecclesiastics could not write, but it appears that ability to read, at least the service books, was a common attainment. Notices of extreme ignorance, in some countries, at certain times, may be found; for instance, king Alfred complains, in his day, that there were very few on the south side of the Humber, and none on the south side of the Thames, who could translate the Latin service into English; and Ratherius, bishop of Verona, in the tenth century, laments that he had found many clergy in his diocese who did not know (sapere) the apostles' creed.* But, perhaps, it would be unfair to take these as decisive proofs of the ignorance of the clergy in general, during the dark ages. The state of things assuredly was mournful enough, without adding to them any imaginary aggravations. Ecclesiastics were the only instructors in those days; but there is no evidence of their having shown much zeal in the enlightenment of the mass of the people. It is true there were schools connected with monasteries and cathedrals, but these institutions were for the education of such persons as were intended for the service of the church. The chief promoters of learning among the laity, to any great D'Achery, Spic. i. 381. extent, were Charlemagne and Alfred, who brought to their assistance the more enlightened men of their times. Parish schools were established by the bishop of Orleans, upor whom Charlemagne placed much dependence in carrying out his liberal views, and, in these schools, education was gratuitously provided for such children as their parents might choose to send.* Alfred also greatly exerted himself to extend the benefits of education over his own country most of the noble, and many of the inferior orders, were placed under the care of masters, who taught them not only to read in Latin and Saxon books, but also to write.† Such facts, however, constitute the exception, rather than the rule, respecting the cultivation of the minds of laymen. Undoubtedly the higher as well as the lower classes were immersed in the deepest shades of ignorance; pursuits conducive to the improvement of their physical strength being, as a matter of course, in such an age, much more highly valued than those which tended to increase intellectual vigour. "For many centuries, to sum up the account of ignorance in a word, it was rare for a layman, of whatever rank, to know how to sign his name. Their charters, till the use of seals became general, were subscribed with the mark of the cross. Still more extraordinary was it to find one who had any tincture of learning. Even admitting every * Mansi, tom. xiii. p. 993. Giesler, ii. 34. indistinct commendation of a monkish biographer, (with whom a knowledge of church music would pass for literature,) we could make out a very short list of scholars. None, certainly, were more distinguished as such than Charlemagne and Alfred. But the former, unless we reject a very plain testimony, was incapable of writing, and Alfred found difficulty in making a translation from the pastoral instruction of St. Gregory, on account of his imperfect knowledge of Latin.' "* The church did more for art than she did for literature. It is in the nature of Christianity, even when imperfectly understood, or greatly corrupted, to produce an influence friendly to civilisation, and its attendant comforts, and thereby to foster the growth of the useful arts, of which the changes wrought in the barbaric nations, during the early part of the medieval period, by the introduction of Christianity among them, are striking proofs: and in addition to this, it must be acknowledged that the innovations which, by that time, had been made upon the simplicity of gospel worship, operated in the same direction. The advantage, however, which thus accrued to the artistic civilisation of society, will be deemed, by Christian minds, a poor compensation for the mischief done to the interests of religion, and the souls of men, by the corruption of the service of God. The study of architecture was a pursuit to which many of the clergy early devoted themselves; and though the ecclesiastical structures, from the seventh to the twelfth century, were far inferior to those which were afterwards reared, they were undoubtedly much superior to the generality of buildings of the period to which they belonged. The edifices reared by our Saxon fathers, in this island, before the arrival of the missionaries from Rome, were extremely humble; but the latter soon introduced a taste for structures of a higher order. Places of worship, rudely constructed of oaken planks, and covered with thatch, were succeeded by churches of polished masonry, with lofty towers, glazed windows, and roofs sheeted with lead. But convenience and taste, such as might have comported with the simplicity of Christian worship, did not suffice; the magnificence of Romish decorations and ceremonies found their way into the Saxon sanctuary. Pictures were brought from Rome by Augustin and Benedict, and placed in churches: a stimulus certainly was thus given to the art of painting. Images, crucifixes, and lamps of precious materials, and elaborate workmanship, were also introduced, and the manufacture of these afforded employ and encouragement to the goldsmith. The making of church bells was another important branch of industry; and the costly robes worn by the priests put the arts of weaving, embroidery, and dyeing in requisition. Splendid service books were also used; and for the production |