supervisors toward errors in teaching. For some reason, the appearance of an instructional shortcoming is a source of irritation. Just why this is so is not clear. Teaching difficulties should certainly be expected, and it is the supervisor's function to give assistance. If difficulties persist, it may be the supervisor's fault and not necessarily that of the teacher. Nevertheless, teachers are sometimes made to feel that they are failing even when they exhibit only the slightest of weaknesses. Probably this is due to the manner in which the supervisor bestows approbation. (He frequently bestows it only upon those with marked excellences.) In any case, the same warm, helpful, sympathetic interest must be maintained toward all teachers. Errors in teaching are not personal offenses against supervision.

The conference should be forward-looking. In any conference, the entire movement should be forward-looking. The analysis of a lesson is of value only as it affects future teaching situations. (The evil effects of mistakes in the lesson should not, in general, be dwelt upon.) The time might much better be spent upon constructive plans for future lessons. The teacher who finds her lessons torn to pieces, and who is left without substitute procedures, unless she possesses remarkable resourcefulness, is dis-/ couraged and resentful.

In looking to the future, the teacher should not merely be told what to do and how to do it. The results of such a conference may be better teaching, but not a stronger teacher. The teacher becomes merely the agency through which the supervisor raises the level of instruction. Many teachers have learned to depend too much on instructions from supervisors. This is indicated by their comments concerning the kind of supervisory help that they desire. In Morrison's report, ten teachers indicated that they wanted more specific plans or methods given to them by

the supervisor, six asked for better or more definite outlines of work to be done, and five suggested the value of group meetings where the assistant superintendent or supervisor might give more specific instructions. Only three wanted supervisory help that would help them to grow.⭑

Teachers should be led to analyze and evaluate their own recitations. A much higher type of conference is that in which the supervisor, by skillful questioning, leads the teacher to discover for herself the major elements of strength and weakness in her procedure, and to devise means of improvement. The conference should lead the teacher to analyze, evaluate, and plan for the future. Self-analysis by the teacher is of vastly more value of her as a meaus of growth than the acknowledgment of any number of shortcomings, once they have been pointed out to her. By merging his own personality into the common problem, the supervisor can, in a subtle way, set the teacher upon a program of self-improvement. Gray suggests a device frequently employed in developing selfcriticism:

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After a drill recitation has been observed, a supervisor hands to the teacher a copy of an outline containing the important points which should be considered in a given type of recitation, with the request that she review her own procedure and estimate her own efficiency as accurately as she can on each point. An appointment for a conference is then made. During the conference, the supervisor and the teacher compare notes. The strong points of the teacher's work are commented on, and the contributing causes are considered. The weak points are discussed and remedial measures are suggested. Differences in the judgments of the supervisor and the teacher are frequently

*J. C. Morrison, "Improving Classroom Instruction," Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, p. 210.

"W. S. Gray, "Improving the Technique of Teaching," Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, p. 273.

revealed. These differences form a definite point of departure for profitable and thorough-going discussions. It frequently happens that the teacher has standards which are too high or too low and which can be clarified through discussion. In many cases teachers do not have definite clear-cut ideas in regard to the essentials of effective teaching. These conferences provide an excellent opportunity for the discussion of valid standards.

Only in this way can teachers become self-reliant. This analysis should take place in the conference room, at first guided by the questions and suggestions of the supervisor.

The teacher should be encouraged. Speaking on this point, Charles B. Gilbert, in a very practical discussion of visitation and conference in The School and Its Life, says:

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The teacher should go away from the conference encouraged rather than discouraged. Indeed, a conference of the right sort would often remove discouragement. Many a discouraged young teacher whose school has become a dreadful burden, and who goes home tired in body and mind to spend an anxious and sometimes a tearful night, could be saved all this distress if a sympathetic principal or supervisor were to spend a half hour in private conference with her, bringing the results of his experience and his superior wisdom to the reinforcement of her limited skill and experience.

The supervisor should be positive without being opinionated. The supervisor in the conference must be positive without being opinionated, and cautious without being colorless. He must know the characteristics of good teaching, and judge practice in terms of them. By this means he can be reasonably sure of the soundness of the advice that he has to offer. If disagreements arise between teacher and supervisor, the latter must refrain from debate. Such a contest is apt to leave either the sting

C. B. Gilbert, The School and Its Life (Silver Burdett), p. 127.

of defeat or the equally objectionable exultation of victory. Discussion is entirely legitimate if impersonal and constructive. Discussion clarifies ideas and reveals basic principles. If a discussion threatens to become a debate, both teacher and supervisor had better leave the matter and gather more data until the evidence is sufficient to reveal the true conditions. Tradition is the most active agency that opposes supervisors, and in the conference with the teacher the supervisor must remember the weight of sentiment and belief that clings about "what has always been so," and "what we learned at school." To belittle these facts is fatal. Rather must they be respected, the elements of truth in them called to the teacher's notice, and reasons for modification based upon scientific evidence presented.

The criticism of teaching must be discriminating. General criticism should be avoided. If the principal or supervisor says, "The lesson was very good," but fails to point out the particulars in which the lesson was good, he merely commends. If he says, "The work is poor," and fails to say in what respect, he discourages the teacher without offering constructive assistance. It is much better to say, "The method used in collecting papers was very economical," "The degree of attention was marked," "The explanation of the term charter was well given"; or, "The amount of time consumed in getting started was a bit long," "The class exercise was largely questions and answers," "A few illustrations might have been used to good advantage." Discriminating comments leave the teacher better equipped to analyze her own teaching and to plan for progressive improvement.

The criticism of teaching must be constructive. As has already been pointed out, criticism must not be mere faultfinding. In general, it is unwise to tear down unless

there are available better materials with which to build. To say to the teacher that a thing is wrong without offering a better procedure is merely to make matters worse by adding discouragement to wrong practices. Say, instead, "Why not try starting the class exactly on time?" "A procedure that I have found helpful in explaining difficult terms is to use familiar examples," "An excellent substitute for 'hearing lessons' is a carefully devised informal test," etc.

Criticism must be of a professional nature. The most desirable end to attain in the directing of teaching is a professional attitude on the part of both the teacher and the supervisor. When the physician tells his patient that he has a weak heart, the patient not only expresses appreciation for the service, but pays for it. It would never occur to him that he had been insulted, criticized personally, or otherwise injured. There is, similarly, on the part of the physician a feeling that he has rendered a professional service. Submission to treatment on the part of the patient represents a degree of confidence in the reliability of the physician. This in turn is based upon the successful outcome of similar past performances. Some patients refuse to accept and finally refuse to act upon medical advice. Some patients die. Some deaths are due to errors in diagnosis; some are chargeable to errors in treatment, and some are chargeable to constitutional causes for which the patient was not wholly responsible. But in any case, the relationship is wholly professional.

It is true that the physician, unlike the supervisor, gives assistance upon call. Many school systems have realized this organizational difficulty, and have placed

'Emery Filbey, "Vocational Interviewing" (unpublished material).