from the tiresomeness of fixed posture. Sometimes this shift will consist merely of throwing the weight on the advanced foot for the effect of emphasis or intensity, or on the retired foot when the speaker is in a calm, deliberative mood. Again, the change may be more marked; the speaker may, particularly when opening a new phase, advance or retire three or four steps. In doing this there should be no shuffling or gliding movements, but natural steps. And in case the speaker advances toward the left or right rather than directly forward, care should be taken to avoid an awkward crossing of the feet.

D. EXPRESSION WITH THE HEAD AND FACE

In reference to expression with the head and face, the injunction, "Be natural," applies with particular force. Rigidity, or constant turning, or excessive nodding of the head are to be eschewed. The eyes of the speaker are to be kept on the eyes of his auditors, just as in conversation. As in conversation, also, he should give his features full play in the expression of his thoughts and emotions. Or, rather, the expressiveness of mouth and eyes will oftentimes be more marked than in conversation, in order to harmonize with the more animated or intense style of address which is ordinarily required of the public speaker. Above all things, the dull, wooden countenance which

never smiles, nor frowns, nor lifts an eyebrow, nor compresses the lips is to be avoided. For influencing an audience, the voice itself has scarcely the power which is inherent in an expressive coun

tenance.

E. GESTURES OF THE ARMS AND HANDS

We come now to that phase of visible expression which is least likely to be effectively directed by natural impulse-gestures of the arms and hands. Undoubtedly the impulse to use the arms exists in most speakers; but the results are in many cases far from satisfactory. With some persons the impulse is manifested in a mere succession of little jerks of the hand; with others it is converted into one or two full gestures which are used with wearying monotony for all purposes; again, the impulse leads the speaker into absolutely misleading motions, or a constant threshing about with the arms, or various other futilities. In the field of manual gesture, therefore, a little knowledge of the real possibilities, as evinced by good speakers and open to the test of common sense, should be helpful.

I. Manual Gestures and Common Sense

Let us first inquire, from a practical viewpoint, just what people attempt, either consciously or

unconsciously, when they make gestures with the hands in ordinary intercommunication. The angered schoolboy threatens to "smash" his opponent's face, and displays his extended fist. The preacher appeals to heaven, and raises his hands toward the sky. The enthusiastic fisherman in recounting the capture of a "whopping" bass spreads his hands widely apart. The proud farmer informs the stranger that he owns all the land in sight, accompanying his words with a broad sweep of the hand. A foreman, directing the engineer of a steam crane, turns his palm down and motions downward if he wants the tackle lowered. An irate old father, terminating a heated argument with his rebellious son, thumps the desk as he delivers a paternal ultimatum. What are all these people trying to do? Clearly, to express by suggestive motions the scene, action, thought or feeling about which they are speaking. These are typical, natural gestures, and it will hardly be denied that they add materially to the vividness, clearness and force of the accompanying verbal expression. The listener (and observer) understands them-they mean something to him because they are the motions that he, or anybody else, might make under similar circumstances. Well, that is all that is required of the gestures used by the public speaker; they must really mean something. When he says that "the whole

country is suffering from a car shortage," he will give a much clearer suggestion of extent by a broad sweep than by a little jerk of the hand in the region of the hip. If he says the jury "must" acquit his client, he will show much stronger conviction by swinging his fist down than by merely lifting his hand to the level of the waist and letting it drop to the side.

II. The Scope of Manual Gestures

The following sections indicate the general scope of manual gestures, of which the preceding paragraph gave specific examples. It is to be noted that under the various classifications no distinction is made between that which is material, and that which is intellectual or emotional. Gestures, being purely physical, derive their power to suggest ideas only by virtue of the analogy between ideas and material things or actions. For example, a noble aim is suggested by a high gesture because it is analogous to a lofty tower, let us say; likewise, the inverted palm can convey the idea of emotional restraint because it is a common sign of physical restraint. In considering the scope of gesture the student will do well to bear in mind this significant observation.

a. Forms of the Hand

The hand itself is capable of various forms, each of which suggests distinct impressions, especially in conjunction with speech.

1. The upturned palm addresses, presents, affirms, permits, shows openness and geniality.

2. The inverted palm covers, suppresses, prohibits, indicates secrecy and negation. 3. The index finger warns, threatens, points out, emphasizes and isolates specific things.

4. The palm turned outward at an angle to the wrist drives away, and indicates opposition or abhorrence.

5. The clenched fist defies, challenges, denotes intensity, determination, or extreme emphasis.

b. Positions of the Hand

Not only do the forms of the hand convey distinctly varying impressions, but so also do the positions of the hand with respect to the body. 1. The gesture may be terminated above the line of the shoulders to denote elevation of any sort, physical, mental or emotional. 2. It may be made below the waist line to convey the impression of low position, base