Eclectic and Congregational Review

teenth century, by a Jewish philosopher named Schem-Tob IbnFalaquera. The other is a later version of the same treatise. By comparing these two documents with one another, M. Munk has found it possible in a certain manner to restore, with a few trifling exceptions, the whole work of Avicebron, and also to arrive at a few biographical conclusions which, imperfect as they still are, must appear satisfactory compared with what we actually knew up to the present time. The real name of Avicebron was Salomon Ibn-Gebirol; he was a Spanish Rabbi of the eleventh century, and seems to have been brought up at Saragossa. As for his doctrines, the best way in which we can state them is, by borrowing the following extract from the report contributed to the Comptes-rendus, by M. Frank: "On peut ramener à trois les principaux éléments de sa doctrine. Le premier, c'est la théorie de la forme et de la matière, théorie toute péripatéticienne à l'origine, mais que Plotin, en la prenant à Aristote, a déjà singulièrement détournée de son caractère primitif, et qu'Avicebron, c'est-à-dire Ibn-Gébirol, en détourne encore davantage en la prenant à Plotin. Le second, c'est la conception Orientale ou plutôt Alexandrine de l'émanation, renfermée avec soin dans les limites de l'univers. Enfin le dernier, qui forme la partie la plus originale de ce livre, c'est la tentative faite par l'auteur pour placer au-dessus d'une physique toute panthéiste, une volonté intelligente et toute puissante, un Dieu libre et personnel, en empêchant pour ainsi dire le courant fatal des émanations de monter jusqu'à l'essence divine.""

The above quotation will suffice to show the importance of M. Munk's discovery; and yet the "Fons Vita" of Rabbi Ibn-Gebirol must necessarily address itself only to a limited number of readers, whilst the majority will turn to more popular subjects, and feel satisfied with fresh inquiries into the metaphysical systems of Greece and Rome. True students will peruse with interest M. Chauvet's curious memoir on Galen's critique of the doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, and a fragment by M. Adolphe Garnier, on the history of ethical science in Greece. An accurate examination of Xenophon's works has led M. Garnier to see in the Athenian general one of the most practical of the disciples of Socrates, and one of the earliest writers on the science of political economy, which is generally thought to be of strictly modern growth. Xenophon denounces, for instance, in the strongest terms, the old custom of burying in the ground large sums of gold and silver, thus allowing them to remain unproductive. He likewise explains and illustrates by examples the advantages derived from the subdivision of labour. It is rather curious to find Xenophon, an Athenian and a republican, expa tiating on the merits of the Persian monarchy, and becoming almost the tutor of modern kings. “Cyrus," says M. Garnier, "strikes us as the precursor of Louis XIV, and Xenophon as his maître des cérémonies." The work of Galen, analyzed and examined by M. Chauvet in the Bulletin de l'Académie, is a most valuable con

Comptes-rendus des Séances: Oct. 1857, p. 45.
Comptes-rendus: June-September.

tribution to the history of moral philosophy. Its great merit consists in stating very clearly the opinion of the Stoics in general, and more particularly of Chrysippus, on the faculties of the soul, and their place in the constitution of man. In support of his assertions on this subject, Galen has given us several fragments from the works of Chrysippus; M. Chauvet puts together these fragments, as well as other indications supplied by Cicero and Diogenes Laertius; the result of his industry being a tolerably complete view of the doctrines held by a school of which so few written monuments have been preserved.

M. Hachette's Revue de l'Instruction Publique keeps us still within the limits of theological and critical studies. Amongst many profound and well-written articles contributed to that paper during the year now coming to a close, we may name a Compte-rendu of M. Brierre de Boismont's "Du Suicide et de la Folie Suicide considérés dans leur rapport avec la Statistique, la Médecine, et la Philosophie." This book is highly interesting, and contains a number of statistical documents of real value. In examining it in the Revue de l'Instruction Publique, M. Bersot has offered a few sensible and apposite remarks on the fact that suicides become more frequent as civilization progresses. This development arises from the new wants, the new feelings, which an advanced state of civilization creates in us. activity is increased, our imagination and our sensibility are overexcited, life assumes a kind of feverish, abnormal shape, and consequently, if principle is wanting whenever misfortunes or disappointments occur, the idea of self-destruction naturally steps in also.

Our

Another Compte-rendu which we must not forget to mention is that of Le Dieu's memoirs of Bossuet. This French Boswell was for twenty years the private secretary of the illustrious prelate, and he had therefore many opportunities of knowing his labours and struggles. The journal begins only in the seventy-second year of the prelate's life, but it is full of the minutest details, and shows the difficult part Bossuet had to perform in maintaining the dignity of the Gallican Church, preventing the Jesuits from carrying out their insidious plans, checking the Jansenists, and endeavouring to stem the corruption which towards the end of the reign of Louis XIV. was acquiring such frightful proportions. Le Dieu's journal leaves a melancholy impression on the mind of the reader; we see that all parties wanted to make use of Bossuet's name for the purpose of sanctioning their intrigues and procuring the publication of a doubtful book; the bishop's bedside was actually hemmed in by petitioners and enemies earnestly watching for the fatal moment when the death of a great man would allow them with impunity to asperse his cha!racter, and to quarrel for his spoils. These various points have been correctly explained by M. Aubert in the Revue de l'Instruction Publique. The only fault we have to find with this gentleman is for his severe and almost unjust remarks on the notes and preface of the

Revue de l'Instruction Publique de la Littérature et des Sciences en France et dans les Pays Etrangers.

April 16.

' July 19.

Abbé Guettée. Le Dieu's learned editor may perhaps have yielded too much to the temptation of claiming Bossuet on behalf of Jansenism; but this is no way affects the merit of an introduction which, as a manifesto of the modern Gallican party, deserves to be attentively studied.

The year 1857 will not have been barren in works of a serious and useful character. M. Bouillet's "Plotinus" is a monument worthy of taking its place side by side with M. Cousin's "Visions of Plato," and M. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire's translation of Aristotle. The Revue de l'Instruction Publique has likewise devoted to M. Jules Simon several articles" in which his position as a philosopher is clearly and impartially defined. The publication of the three volumes respectively entitled "Le Devoir," "La Religion Naturelle,” and “ La Liberté de Conscience," could not but create an intense excitement in the Ultramontanist camp. Men like Veuillot, Guéranger, and Aubineau, prefer having to defend themselves against the attacks of exaggerated writers such as M. Lanfrey; then they are almost sure of success, and they can at all events find in the works of their opponents a sufficient plea to justify on their own side any amount of abuse and personality; but the difficulty for these scribblers is to deal with a thinker who, like M. Simon, is always grave, dignified, serious, and who will not prostitute his talent to the low uses of party spirit. The controversy which his publications have given rise to proves conclusively that the ultra-clerical faction in France has not yet learnt a lesson of moderation, and therefore we rejoice the more in seeing the dignified and courteous strictures made by M. l'Abbé Maret on M. Simon in his lectures on divinity delivered at the Sorbonne, M. Maret of course endeavours to diminish the claims of reason and to invalidate the position of natural religion; but he does so with much moderation, and whilst availing himself fully of his rights as a critic, he never for a moment loses sight of the character of his antagonist. Referring our reader to the Revue de l'Instruction Publique for an account of M. l'Abbé Maret's lecture, we must bring this summary of French periodical literature to a close, with a few observations on the Revue des Deux Mondes, the Revue Contemporaine, and the Revue Chrétienne. The first-named of these three journals, under the editorship of M. Buloz, still maintains its old superiority; all the articles admitted are of great merit, but it seldom touches on subjects of a theological nature, and therefore scarcely comes within the limit of our résumé. Organ of the Government, and supported mainly by contributions from head-quarters, the Revue Contemporaine is on the contrary very often taken up with papers on either metaphysics or religion, some of them treated in a masterly manner. M. Caro, lately professor at the Faculté des Lettres of Douai, and recently appointed to the philosophical lectureship at the Ecole Normale of Paris, is the author of almost all these disquisitions. He is a man of deep religious feeling, of sound learning, and writes with much power. The Revue Chretienne, after an experience of four

10 Rev. de l'Instr. Pub, Oct. 1. "Sept. 24; Nov. 26.

13 Feb. 19.

years, has taken its place amongst the best organs of the French periodical press. It is the Protestant literary journal, and in its discussions of the men and topics of the day, it combines great ability and earnestness of purpose. The articles of M. R. SaintHilaire, on Protestantism in Spain, of M. Goy on Lamennais, and of M. Bersier on Bossuet, are excellent specimens of the talent displayed in the Revue Chrétienne.

Another way of estimating the intellectual progress of France, is to notice the encouragement afforded to literature, science, &c., by learned bodies, which have, such as the Institute, funds at their disposal for public prizes and other rewards. The following tabular statement, compiled from authentic sources, will, therefore, prove interesting, and appropriately complete our quarterly summary of French literature during the year 1857 :—

PRIZES OFFERED FOR COMPETITION BY THE “ACADÉMIE DES SCIENCES MORALES ET POLITIQUES."

Determine the connexion

between

Ethics and Political Economy..
On the origin, variations, and progress
of Maritime Law

On the causes which have produced
the agglomerations of Population
On the fluctuation of raw and farming
produce in Agriculture

On the results of the recent and sudden
increase of Precious Metals
On the causes and effects of Emigra
tion during the nineteenth century..
On the various forms and conditions of
Military Service in France since the
origin of the monarchy
On the condition of the Working
Classes in France, between the
twelfth century and the revolution
of 1789 ....

Determine the political character of
the French Parliaments, between the
reign of Philip the Fair and the
revolution of 1789...

On Taxation before and since 1789
On Institutions of Credit

On Pauperism in France, and its
remedies