ism of thought and passes over to a parallelism of sentences, and thereby becomes enlarged into the verse of two lines.

But although this rhythmical progression, presupposes a correspondence of members, it does not follow that this division of the members of the verse into two which rests upon the parallelismus sententiarum, is the original and essential rhythm of the poetry, in general (Herder, et al.) which, is at the basis of the structure of the Psalms (Hupfeld, Zeitschrift der d. morg. Gesellschaft, 1852, S. 53 f.). For the rising and falling in the line of thought constitutes the necessary movement for the members of the sentence, just as syllabic feet mark the progression for words. Syllabic metre must not be smuggled in on the other side from this remark. For all attempts which have been made, and repeated from the time of Philo and Josephus, to discover a metre, analogous to that of the Greeks and Romans, either in the number of syllables (Buxtorf) or their quantity (Franc. Gormarus, Davidis lyra, 1637), have been as fruitless as the attempt of Jones, (Poeseos Asiatica comment. p. 72 f.), to apply the rules of Arabic metre to the poetry of the Hebrews. In the most intelligent attempts of this sort, we find only a certain numbering and difference of syllables, brought out by emphasis, and according to Bellermann, a prevailing iambic emphasis, placing the accent upon the last syllable; while according to Saalschütz, there is a prevailing trochaic, with an occasional spondaico-dactylio-rhythm, in which the penultimate is emphasized. In either case, the divisions of the words are brought by accentuation into rhythmical movement, without possessing a strictly metrical character. This is true also of the divisions of the sentences, where the accent is determined by the sense of the words, the position of which in the sentence is of importance to the rhythm. The frequent assertion of the Rabbis that in Hebrew poetry, there is only a rhythm of sentences, and not of syllables, is by this fact more definitely established; and also their other statement, that the rhythmical quantity is originally and essentially determined by the contents, i. e., partly by the repetition of the same thought, in similar or allied expression, and, in part by the prominence which is imparted to them by antithetic and synthetic terms of expression. We do not infer from this with Hupfeld, that the rhythm was purely an internal one, i. e. a parallelism of thought or of logical sentences. In the structure of Hebrew Psalms, there is not only a measure of thought, but also a relation of form, and a parallelism, which arises from an evenness of language, which De Wette (Comm. p. 52) calls rhythmical, and Weinrich (De poeseos hebr. et arab. origine, indole nutuoque consensu atque discrimine, 1843), syntactical, to which G. Baur also has called attention. Sommer in his proof of the development (Bibl. Abh. i. 93 f.) of a formal principle in different kinds of verses and strophes, proceeds from the alphabetical songs.

Sommer is right in seeing in the alphabetical songs, not mere play words, nor the signs of a degenerate taste, (De Wette), nor evidence of a late date (Ewald); but, in part, helps for the memory, and in part, symbolic reference to their completeness, and wholeness, since only instructive poems and Psalms of lamentation present this alphabetic arrangement. Their more definite consideration belongs to the exposition of the particular Psalms. Here the general remark suffices, that an alphabet is formed by the initial letters of the lines Pss. cxi. cxii. by double lined strophes in Pss. xxv. xxxiv. cxlv., by four lined strophes in Pss. ix. x. xxxvii., by the longer strophes of Ps. cxix., in which every two lined verse begins with the same letter, which is eight times repeated.*

How particular verses are to be divided, and joined together in strophes, is in individual cases, questionable. For the particular members are not always easily distinguished, as, e. g., in the graded rhythm of Pss. cxxi. and cxxiii. and partly in Ps. cxxxvi., where a prominent expression is repeated in the following verse while the thought is still further developed. The logical parallelism of the strophes of which Ps. 1. may be taken as an example, is not always clearly discernible, nor always carried through consistently, so as to render the strophaic parallelism a safe guide, as Köster assumes. Yet the fact is incontestable, that the Psalms are not poetic prose, but they possess, a poetical structure, of rhythmical members, though not always thoroughly carried out. In the different editions of Luther's translation

* [Unsuccessful attempts have been made to preserve the acrostic form in German by Delitzsch, in English by Dalman Hapstone (The Ancient Psalms, in Appropriate Metres: a strictly literal translation from the Hebrew, Edin., 1867).-C.A.B.]

accordingly, this feature is no longer to be perceived (with the exception of Hommel's edition arranged in 1859, for song and recommended for evangelical family devotions, in which the parallelism, at least, is made apparent); nor has it been restored in the numerous earlier and later versified paraphrases. In the Latin Psalters, arranged for public worship, the individual verses have been, as a general rule, written consecutively.

In order to restore as far as possible their poetic structure, which is important to the understanding of the Psalms, and their impression upon us, and which is essential to their musical rendering, we must not be confined to the masoretic division of the verses as an immovable foundation as Peters demands (Psalmen in der Urgestalt, in the Zeitschr. der d. morg. Gesellsch. xi. 533). The so-called masoretic division of the verses, is certainly older than the pointings of the Masora (Hupfeld), but not always correct, as Ewald has proved (in Jahrb. iii. 128; viii. 68) from the structure of the turns of expression in the Psalms. Neither do the Hebrew manuscripts furnish anything decisive. They generally break the verses arbitrarily, without determined rules, or reference to the sense, usually into two parts so that the line in space (oríxoç) is entirely indifferent to the line in sense (@2ov); and by thus mutilating the text, the meaning is often much obscured, cp. Bär ii. f. quoted by Delitzsch in his Comm. ii. 452 f., who introduces passages from the Talmud and the Rabbis which require that the three so called poetic books should be written in a song style, with short lines, and even in hemistichs. He remarks that such a division of the Psalter is no longer to be found in the Masora, and shows by examples, the irregular procedure of the manuscripts. He for this reason, in his masoretic, critical, edition of the Psalms abandoned the division by verses, and reproduced the usual masoretic form, only in Ps. xviii. The number of verses in the Psalter is also variously stated. They are generally put at 1612. But from a statement of Bär which Delitzsch quotes in his Comm. ii. 474, in the 19, sedarim, i. e., classes and series, into which the Psalms were divided, the number of pesukim or verses is given at 2527, the middle verse being Ps. lxxviii. 36. The restoration of the members of the so called verses, is most easily accomplished 'on the basis of their parallelism. To discover their strophaic structure, the only recourse left, is to proceed from the unity of the thought, in a greater number of lines of sense, taking care not to be led astray, by our failure always to find a regular and homogeneous structure. It is quite reasonable to suppose, that changes from short lined to long lined verses, may occasionally appear, as characteristic of the Hebrew lyrics, such as we may recognize in the different groupings of strophes in the same Psalm.* The method of procedure, here proposed, harmonizes with the little which we know of the manner of rendering the Psalms.

[Since the time of Lowth the parallelism of Hebrew poetry has been generally regarded as of three kinds: the synonymous, the antithetical and the synthetical or constructive. But since the first two kinds are rare in their occurrence and many of them do not differ to any appreciable degree in some of their phases from those of the third class, and since it is very generally admitted that almost all Hebrew poetry belongs to the third class and some of the poetry cannot without difficulty be brought under either of the three classes, I do not see what advantage there is in the classification. The true idea of Hebrew poetry is that the rythmical flow of thought finds its natural expression, and is not checked by the external form, except in the acrostic. The thought ebbs and flows, and the expression ebbs and flows with it, both as regards the lines and the strophes. The lines are often of even length, but not unfrequently very uneven, and the strophes are but seldom uniform in their number of lines. There is no guidance for division into lines and strophes, except in the greater or lesser ebb and flow of the thought. As Dr. Binnie says (The Psalms, their history, teachings, and use, p. 137, 1870). "The pause in the progress of thought determines the point at which the verse or line must end. The poetical structure fits so closely to the thought, that a Hebrew poem can be reproduced in any other language, verse for verse and line for line." Dr. Wright (Art. Hebrew Poetry, Smith's Dict. of the Bible) cites from Bishop Jebb (Sacr. Lit. p. 20) with approval the following: "Hebrew poetry is universal poetry; the poetry of all languages and of all peoples: collocation of words . . . is primarily directed so as to secure the best possible announcement and discrimination of the sense; let then, a translator only be literal, and so far as the genius of the language will permit, let him preserve the original order of the words, and he will infallibly put the reader in possession of all or nearly all that the Hebrew text can give to the best Hebrew scholar of the present day." Says Dr. Binnie, p. 152, "The Hebrew poems stand alone in all literature in this respect that, with the partial exception of the acrostics they can be transferred, in their form as well as their substance, in a literal translation, into any other language One may well trace in this the overruling hand and wisdom of Him who designed the Scriptures to be the fountain of spiritual light, and the rule of faith and manners to all nations. Suppose the poetry of the Bible had been metrical, what would have been the effect? Why, one half of the Old Testament would have been to the Gentiles a fountain sealed. The Paradise lost turned into prose is the Paradise lost no more. There are literal translations of Homer and of Horace into fair English prose; but, except for certain schoolboy purposes, they are utterly useless. They convey no idea of the Greek and Latin originals. Had the Prophecies of

10. THE MANNER IN WHICH THE PSALMS WERE RENDERED.

The Psalms were not simply poems, originally thought out, and intended to be read, according to Hupfeld's appropriate remarks, Comm. iv. 439. They were rather sung, or intended to be sung, and that with musical accompaniment. This is manifest not merely from "the analogy of all the most ancient poetry," but from their liturgical purpose and use (vid. ¿ 5). The delivery of the Psalms however was not so much a singing as an oriental style of declamation, with a lively modulation of the voice (Saalschütz, Archäologie I. 287) and depended on the accents. Simon Durau even alludes (Delitzsch's Comm. II. 479) to three styles of delivery for the Bible, one for the Pentateuch, one for the Prophets, and one for the metrical books (Psalms, Proverbs and Job). He remarks, however, that the melodies alluded to have not been preserved. In ancient ritual books, two styles of singing, are indicated by the accents (Zunz, Die synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters i. 1855, 115), but we have no definite knowledge in regard to them, and the entire theory of accentuation, is obscure and open to controversy. We are only sure, that the accent did not simply indicate the emphasis and division of sentences; but referred also to the tones in which they were to be delivered, and furthermore that the metrical accents were from the most ancient time, different in figure and position from those of the other twenty-one sacred books. A representation of the later system is given by Heydenheim, in the Hebrew book, Mischpete ha-Teámim, 1808, full of important information drawn from Jewish grammarians. S. Bär, rendered a similar service with reference to metrical accentuation in the Hebrew work, Thorath Emeth, 1852. He has furnished also an independent treatise, important on all questions of accentuation, in an appendix to Delitzsch's Comm. ii. 477 f. But while we may infer from the names of the several accents, which refer for the most part to their intonation, yet sometimes to both this, and the figure, their musical significance, yet the ancient metrical modulation is still unknown, and the investigation of original sources, gives us but a fragmentary knowledge of the intonation of a few metrical accents. To this connection belongs, the distinction referred to the Rabbis Acha and Mocha, between the Babylonian and Tiberian systems of accentuation. which although referring to but a few points, have yet been connected with other differences between Oriental and Occidental Jews. Upon these matters the influence of the Sect of the Karaans becomes more and more apparent. Cf. besides the references to later discoveries in Delitzsch's Comm. ii. 8519 f., especially J. Fürst's Geschichte des Karärthums bis 900 der gewöhnlichen Zeitrechnung, 1862. Jost (Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Sekten, 1858, ii. 336) had previously pointed out the peculiar methods of employing these accents, in singing the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Sol. It is still uncertain, however, whether the Occidental chanting of the German and Polish Jews, or the Oriental style of the Jews of Italy and Spain, have preserved most accurately their original character. The assumption of Haupt (Sechs Alttestam. Psalmen mit ihren aus den Accenten enzifferten Singweisen, 1854) that the accents are numerical signs to be combined with the Hebrew letters, furnishing in the series of tones thus given, the original melody, is highly improbable. It is, moreover questionable, if the present accentuation represents any more than the style of delivery at the period of the Herodian temple; not to speak of the earlier method. It may be conjectured, that the style of singing was formerly more diversified, than that which is indicated by the present accentuation. The Jewish traveller Petachia, of Regensburg, in the 12th century states (Literaturblatt des Orients iv. 541) that in Bagdad (where Benjamin of Tudela in the same century, also found a peculiar style of singing Psalms with musical accompaniment) there were several traditional melodies, yes several for particular Psalms. The Rabbis, also, frequently refer the numerical references contained in several superscriptions, e. g., Pss. vi. xii. xcii. to the number of its melody. The conjecture of Gerberti (De cantu et musica sacra, 2 vols., 1174), et al., is especially worthy of attention, comp. Saalschütz (Geschichte und Würdigung der Musik, 1829, S. 121)

Isaiah or the Psalms of David been written in the classical measure or our modern rhymes, they would have fared as ill at the hands of the translators. They must have remained untranslated till some man of genius arose to execute a metrical version, which would have been but a paraphrase after all. As the case stands, David and Isaiah may be transferred, without material loss, into any language by any scholarly pen. Not only their sense, but their manner and the characteristic felicities of their style, are reproduced, not unfairly, in our Authorized English Version."-C. A. B.]

and Ferd. Wolf (Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen und Leiche, 1841, S. 285), that the eight so-called Church tones of the Gregorian chants, have preserved the remnants of the ancient temple song. The Jewish tradition, was simply a further development, under the influence of Grecian musical instruction, cf. § 13. Not only are eight musical accents frequently alluded to, by the Rabbis (neginoth), but the eight Church tones, are to be found in the Armenian Church (Petermann in Zeitschrift für die d. morg. Gesellsch. V. 368 f.), and a kindred style of singing also in the Greek Church. Ewald and Hupfeld, in their praiseworthy efforts to represent scientifically, the difficult and obscure doctrine of accentuation, and to deduce it from one leading principle, are agreed in this;-that the accentuation was neither purely logical nor purely musical, but of a rhythmical character, every masoretic verse forming a rhythmical period, whose members were marked by a rising and falling inflection. They disagree however in this, that Hupfeld regards the rhythmical period as double, i. e., consisting of a rising and falling inflection, and proceeding from this basis to a still farther dichotomy, while Ewald regards them as progressing in three movements, each growing more difficult than the preceding, until the course is ended. Ewald suggests a special scheme of poetical accentuation in which the falling inflection occurs in the middle of the verse.

11. THE LITURGICAL RENDERING OF THE PSALMS WITH MUSIC.

The frequent use in the Psalms of words signifying to play (often with the name of the instrument) points, apart from the testimony of the superscriptions, (cf. 12), to the fact that the rendering of the Psalms was with musical accompaniment. The frequent occurrence of strophaic members, with refrains, points in like manner to their rendering by choruses or even with the dance (Hupf. iv. 440). The oldest reference of this kind is found in Exodus xv. 20, Judges xi. 34. The division of entire Psalms, however, into responsive choruses by Nachtigall (Gesänge Davids und seiner Zeitgenossen, 1797), and others, is unhistorical. The chorus repeated only the refrain, vid. Pss. xlii., xliii. It appears, nevertheless, from the description of the Book of Chronicles, associated with isolated statements in the Psalms themselves that the liturgical singing was antiphonal, even during the period of the first temple, cultivated by persons specially appointed to that office, and led, if not exclusively conducted by the Levitical singers, accompanied by the music of the priests. These arrangements were based essentially upon usages introduced by David, 1 Ch. xxv. 2; which were preceded only by the regulations in Num. x., for the use of two silver trumpets to be sounded by the priests. The leading instrument which marked the time was the cymbal, zalzal in the Talmud zelazal, referred to in 2 Sam. vi. 5, as one of the sacred instruments. These can scarcely have been the clapping castanets (Pfeifer, Ueber die Music, p. 54), but the ringing cymbals (Septuag. κvußahov) of which there were two kinds, Ps. cl. 5, the clear-sounding and the dull-sounding (Ewald, Jahrb. viii., 67 f.). Harp-playing was often employed minnim, Ps. cl. 4; perhaps also xlv. 9. The highest part was led by the nebel (váßha, vavka, arpov) indicating, it may be, the lyre, xcii. 4, which Josephus tells us, in his Jewish Antiquities, had twelve strings, and was played with an ivory plectrum, in distinction from nebel, asor, or simply asor, the harp of ten strings, which was played with the hand, 1 Sam. xvi. 23, xviii. 10, xix. 9. The lower part was played upon the cither, kinnôr (kvúpa,keďápa), an octave lower (1 Chron. xv. 21). The straight metallic trumpets were especially prominent as wind instruments, chazozrah (σáhy), whose number, according to 1 Chron. v. 12, amounted to 120; then came the crooked rams' horns, shôfar (oáhnıyž kepatívn), Pss. lxxxi. 4, xcviii. 6, cl. 3; probably identical with queren-horn, Jos. vi. 5; finally the shepherd's flute or reed-pipe, 'ugab, cl. 4, which was also called chalil, probably a hollow reed, vid. Hupfeld on Ps. v. 1; Delitzsch on Gen. iv. 21. Their use during the period of the first temple is established by Is. xxx. 29; comp. 1 Sam. vi. 5; 1 Kings i. 40. The chief instrument which accompanied festal dancing was the tof (rvμravov) Arabic duff, whence the Spanish adufe through the Moorish, the handdrum or tamborine, cl. 4, cf. Ex. xv. 20. The menaannim (Vulg.: sistra, Luther: Schellen), alluded to in 1 Sam. vi. 5, in the bringing back of the ark of the covenant, were bended rods of iron, hung with loose rings, which rattled on being shaken. Likewise mentioned but once, 1 Sam. xviii. 6, are the schalischîm, i. e.. triangles (Luther erroneously, "violins"). It is

doubtful whether we may infer from the expression "in the full choir,” xxvi. 12; lxviii. 72; that the song was partly sung by the congregation. Such a reference is favored rather by 2 Chron. vii. 3, while Jer. xxxiii. 11, Ez. iii. 10, certainly refer to certain responses. With respect to the amen, vid. 1 Chron. xvi. 36, (cf. Ps. cvi., the concluding doxology), Nehemiah viii. 6, (cf. Judith xiii. 25). But this has already brought us down to a late period.

At the time of the second temple the congregation responded amen to the Levites, who sung the Psalm for every day of the week, with the accompaniment of music (cf. § 5). According to the tradition of the Talmud, a sign was given upon the cymbals, whereupon at least twelve Levites, standing upon the broad step (dûkhan) of the short stairway leading from the place of the congregation to the outer court of the priests, at the conclusion of the morning prayer, while the officiating priests poured out the wine offering, and playing together upon nine cithers, two harps, and one cymbal, began the Psalm to be sung, while the younger Levites not joining in the singing, stood at the feet of the older Levites, strengthening the music with their instruments. By the side of the latter stood also the Levitical boys, who represented the treble. Two priests who stood at the right and left of the cymbal-players, and appear to have accompanied the singers with trumpets during the period of the first temple, (2 Chron. v. 18, vii. 6; xxix. 26 f.), indicated the pauses of the song with nine blasts of the trumpet, at the time of the second temple. Lightfoot distributed the latter (in his Ministerium templi Hierosol. c. vii. ii.), following Maimon., between three divisions of the song. Grätz on the contrary, (Geschichte der Juden, iii. 116), interposes them between nine divisions of the song, and that only from the Hasmonæan period. The people fell down in adoration between these pauses of the song, Lev. ix. 24, 1 Kings xviii. 39; cf. Herzfeld (Geschichte iii. 164 f.), who alludes to the gradual omission of the priestly trumpets from the Levitical music, and conjectures that the people frequently raised a shout of joy (terna) which is indicated by the word simcha (1 Chron. xv. 16; 2 Chron. xxix. 30, and elsewhere frequently), and thus only does Num. x. 10 become intelligible.

In the hallel and some other Psalms, the congregation joined in the singing after the first sentence, which it repeated, and after the second sentence, with the hallelujah. The rendering of the hallel was predominantly recitative.

The daily Levitical call of prayer, taken from Ps. xliv. 24, was not accompanied with music at the time of the Maccabees, nor the priestly blessing, Num. vi. 24-26, with which Psalm lxvii. begins, which was sung in the temple at the close of each morning service, in such a melodious manner that the name of God (of twelve letters) was lost in the sound of that in four letters, which was sung by the other priests (vid. Delitzsch, i. 487).

The first fruits, on the other hand, were brought to the temple mount with the music of the flute, which began when they were carried up in baskets, Ps. xxx. The hallel was accompanied by a flute, with a reed for a mouth-piece, and indeed before the altar, on twelve days in the year, namely, on the 14th of Nisan, at the killing of the Paschal lamb; on the 14th of Ijjar, on the killing of the subsequent Paschal lamb; on the first and seventh days of the Passover, and on the eight days of the feast of Tabernacles. On the first day of this feast, at the rejoicing in the drawing of the water, the type of Pentecost, the Levites performed, standing upon the semi-circular stair-case of fifteen steps, leading from the court of the men to that of the women, but probably not previous to the time of Herod's temple, while two priests stood above in the Nicanor gate with trumpets. Concerning the dancing which was then conducted with the swinging of torches and with responsive songs, cf. Delitzsch,Zur Geschichte der jüdischen Poesie, 1836, S. 193 f.

In the temple of Herod there was an organ-a real wind organ with a hundred different tones, whose thundering sound, according to Jerome, could be heard beyond the Mount of Olives, cf. Saalschütz, Archäologie, i. 281.

12. THE CONTROVERTED MUSICAL EXPRESSIONS IN THE PSALMS.

There are a few expressions in the body of the Psalms, which can scarcely be applied to anything other than their musical execution. This is in many cases established, even when their definite significance is a matter of question. Only a few are free from obscurities. Of those whose meaning is questionable we may mention: