B.C.

JEWISH HISTORY.

EGYPT.

SYRIA.

time in Egypt, but soon makes common cause with his brother Philometor.

Antiochus Eupator.

Demetrius Soter.

Alexander Balas set up against Demetrius. Alexander Balas, king of Syria.

130

Antiochus Sidetes. Tryphon put to death.

Demetrius Nicator. Zebina.

Antiochus Grypus.

Seleucus succeeds his father Grypus.

Philip, brother of Seleucus, gains the throne,

Tigranes, king of Armenia, set over Syria.

Pompey conquers Syria for the Romans.

JEWISH HISTORY.

Death of Herod the Great. Archelaus obtains Judæa, Samaria and Idumæa; Herod Antipas, Galilee; Herod Philip, Ituræa, Trachonitis, &c. Banishment of Archelaus. COPONIUS procurator of Judæa; Ananus high-priest.

14

15

17

ing' commenced B.C. 4. MARCUS AMBIVIUS, procurator. ANNIUS RUFUS, procurator.

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS.

Death of Augustus.

VALERIUS GRATUS, procurator. Caiaphas, high-priest.

the Baptist.

30 The Crucifixion.

33

35 Conversion of St Paul.

38

39 The Churches have rest.

41

44 Death of James the brother of John.

45 St Paul's first Missionary Tour.

66 Titus, 1 and 2 Timothy.

rator.

Paul.

68

69

70 Christians retire to Pella.

79

81

95 Persecution of Christians by

Domitian.

96 St John probably still alive.

sian.

Jews banished from Rome by Claudius. Death of Claudius,

Burning of Rome. Persecution under Nero.

Death of Nero. Galba proclaimed.

Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian,

emperors.

Death of Vespasian, Death of Titus.

Death of Domitian.

All the sacrifices and services of the Old Testament had two aspects:

(1) On God's part they were (a) means of instruction, (b) occasions of blessing. (a) may be deduced from the general nature of the sacrifices themselves and their ritual. The official external holiness required by the ceremonial law represented the actual, spiritual, internal holiness which God required in those who would acceptably approach to Him. (b) may be gathered from the narrative of the first sacrifices (Gen. iv. 4, 7); Noah's sacrifice (Gen. viii. 21); the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 16, 17); and from the express promise of Ex. xx.

(Gen. iv. 3, 4); means of asking for temporal blessings (Ex. v. 3); means of approach to God which the consciousness of sin made difficult (Micah vi. 6, 7); outward acts in which man's spiritual desires and affections found fitting expression.

The offering of sacrifices to God was a primæval institution. The first allusion to it is found in Gen. iii. 21. The first actual sacrifices were those of Cain and Abel. No divine command can be quoted for the institution of sacrifice, but from its adoption in the earliest times by all nations its divine origin may be inferred. From the numerous mention of altars in patriarchal times we gather that sacrifice was an ordinary part of the patriarchal religion. Prayer and sacrifice were closely connected together. The patriarchs built an altar, and called upon the name of the Lord (Gen. xii. 8, xxvi. 25). With them

offering of sacrifice was essentially an acknowledgment of dependence upon God, and thence had the two elements of thank-offering and supplication (Cain, Abel, Noah). The element of propitiation, though not prominent, was not wholly absent (Gen. viii. 21). The sacrifice was intended to remove an indefinite feeling of separation from God and a fear of approaching Him; but until the Mosaic Law had brought in a fuller knowledge of sin, a sense of guilt could not be the principal motive of sacrifice. Substitution was a fundamental idea, whether of a part for the whole, the firstfruits for the harvest (Cain, Abel); or of an animal for a man (Isaac). Covenants were based on or ratified by sacrifice, both (a) between God and man (Gen. xv. 9, 10, 17, xxxv. 14); and (b) between man and man (Gen. xxxi. 44-46, 54). Sacrifices were divided into two classes (burntofferings and peace-offerings; Ex. x. 25, xviii. 12, xx. 24). There were no sin or trespass offerings. Burnt-offerings would seem to have been offerings of dedication, and to some extent of expiation (Gen. viii. 21). Peace-offerings by their name implied a state of peace and fellowship between the offerer and his God, and so would express thankfulness for mercies received.

Offerings made to Jehovah must from the nature of the case be the offerer's own property; and they must also be properly acquired by him (Deut. xxiii. 18). They might be made to Jehovah either (a) for His permanent possession (so offerings of gold, silver, &c. for the service of the sanctuary: Ex. xxv. 1-3; 1 Chron. xxix.); or (b) to be consumed in His honour, either (1) in the maintenance of His ministers, or (2) by fire on the altar. (1) were regarded as feudal taxes which the people of Israel paid to Jehovah as the Owner of the land. (2) were sacrifices consumed, partly or wholly, upon the altar for a sweet savour to Jehovah (Ex. xxix. 18); or as His sacrificial food (Ley. iii. 11, 16). When an animal was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled upon the altar for an atonement (Lev. xvii. 11). The sacrificial act represented the personal surrender of the worshipper to Jehovah. The sacrifice itself was his substitute and representative, and must needs be in close and essential connexion with him. Hence only oxen, sheep, goats, turtle-doves and pigeons, wine, oil and corn could be offered on the altar. Animals best represented man personally, because nearest him in the scale of life. Those chosen were domesticated animals, reared by man, his food, and so the support of his life. Wild animals, though fit for food, were excluded, because in no sense the product of his care and cultivation. Vegetables on the other hand best represented man's work, because they were in some sense the product of his skill and toil. Fruits generally were excluded because they grew without cultivation. Altar sacrifices were of three kinds, Sin-offerings, Burnt-offerings, and Peace-offerings.

An altar was a place for offering sacrifice. At its four corners were four horns. On these, its loftiest points, the blood of the sin-offerings was put, that the atonement might be brought the nearer to God. The materials of an altar were either earth (2 Kings v. 17; Ex. xx. 24) or unhewn stones (Deut. xxvii. 5; Josh. viii. 31; Ex. xx. 25). The Israelites were wont to inclose the earth or stones in a wooden case to preserve the proper shape. The wood again might

be overlaid with brass or gold. Hence we have altars of acacia wood (Ex. xxvii. 1); brazen or golden altars (Ex. xxxix. 39, xl. 26). From the nature of worship under the Old Testament dispensation a shrine or sancTM tuary was the place of an altar. The place was chosen by God, who signified His choice by a Theophany. Thus the patriarchs (commonly) built altars in the places in which God had appeared to them (Gen. xii. 7). Under the Law (Deut. xii. 5, 11-14) it was forbidden to build an altar, except in the place which God should choose to put His name there.

From Joshua's death onward the law of the one sanctuary seems to have been almost universally broken. Theophanies were reckoned to be sufficient justification for the building of altars in the days of the Judges (Gideon, Manoah). In the times of the undivided kingdom, Samuel, Saul and David erected altars in various places. After the rejection of Shiloh and before the choice of Zion there was no place in which God had put His Name, so the law of the one sanctuary was virtually repealed. When Solomon's Temple was built it continued to be a dead letter. High places with their sacrificial worship were tolerated even by pious and reforming kings. Asa and Jehoshaphat seem to have made unsuccessful efforts to remove them (cf. 2 Chron. xiv. 5 and xvii. 6 with 1 Kings xv. 14 and xxii. 43). But Hezekiah was probably the first king to put down worship at the high places (2 Kings xviii. 4; 2 Chron. xxxi. 1). Their removal excited the attention of Rabshakeh (2 Kings xviii. 22), and was probably unpopular. Manasseh rebuilt them (2 Kings xxi. 3). Josiah, after the finding of the Book of the Law, defiled the high places and brake down the altars, and did not allow those who had been their priests to perform the duties of their office at Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiii. 8, 9). Worship at the high places became, as we learn from the prophets, the occasion of gross idolatry and immorality. C Is. lvii. 3-8, lxv. 7; Jer. ii. 20; 2 Kings xvii. 10, &c. We hear nothing more of it after the exile.

Two places only (Shiloh and Zion) seem to have been fully authorized as sites of sanctuaries under the Old Testament dispensation.

Many other places had from Theophanies or their associations with the history of the nation a sacred character. At these men were wont to offer sacrifices, generally to Jehovah, but often, and specially in later times, with heathen or idolatrous rites. Such were: Bethel (Gen. xii. 8; Judg. xx. 26, 27; 1 Kings xii. 32; Amos iv. 4); Beersheba (Gen. xxi. 33; Amos v. 5); Dan (Judg. xviii. 30; 1 Kings xii. 29, 30; Amos viii. 14); Gibeon (2 Chron. I. 3; 1 Kings iii. 4); Gilgal (Josh. v. 2-11; 1 Sam. vii. 16; Hosea xii. 11; Amos iv. 4); Mizpeh in Gilead (Gen. xxxi. 48; Judg. xi. 10, xx. 1); Mizpeh in Benjamin (1 Sam. vii. 5, 6, x. 17); Ramah (1 Sam. vii. 17); Shechem (Gen. xii. 6, 7; Josh. viii. 30, xxiv. 25).

The Tabernacle. The names of the Tabernacle were (1) Tent of Meeting (R.V.), because there God met with the children of Israel (Ex. xxix. 43): (2) Tabernacle (literally, dwelling-place), because there God dwelt (Ex. xxv. 8): (3) Tent or Tabernacle of the Testimony. The Testimony the two Tables of the Law (Ex. xxv. 21): (4) (occasionally) The Tent (Ex. xxxix. 33, 38; 1 Kings viii. 4): (5) The House of Jehovah, as His settled dwelling

place (Ex. xxiii. 19; Josh. vi. 24; Judg. xviii. 31). Occasionally (1) and (2) are combined, so Ex. xl. 2; the Tabernacle is called by the name usually assigned to Solomon's temple 1 Sam. i. 9, iii. 3; at times the whole building is called Sanctuary (Ex. xxv. 8), a name more fitly applied to the Holy Place or Holy of Holies.

The 'Tent' must be distinguished from the 'Tabernacle.' By the help of the Revised Version this may easily be done. The Tabernacle was an inner tent, the area available for sacred purposes. The Tent was outside the Tabernacle, over it (Ex. xxvi. 7, xxxvi. 14). Moses set up the Tabernacle first, and then spread the Tent over it (Ex. xl. 19), and finally put the covering of the Tent above upon it. The Tabernacle was an oblong, 30 cubits in length, and 10 in breadth and height. Its sides (N., W., S.) were made of 46 boards (10 cubits by 11) and 2 narrower corner ones of acacia wood (Ex. xxvi. 15), overlaid with gold (xxvi. 29). The boards stood upright, and each had two tenons or projections, which fitted into silver sockets. They were fitted with golden rings, through which were passed bars of acacia wood overlaid with gold to fasten all firmly together. Suspended over them, and serving as an inner lining to the Tent covering, was the rich Tabernacle covering-10 curtains (each 28 cubits by 4) made of fine twined linen, and blue and purple and scarlet, embroidered with figures of cherubim (Ex. xxvi. 1).

Over the Tabernacle the Tent was spread. We have hardly sufficient data to determine its shape or construction; but its roof was formed by eleven curtains of goat-skins (each 4 cubits by 30). These were supported towards the east by five pillars. We may infer that they had the same support in the west, and that the two sets of pillars were connected by a ridge-pole. As the length of the Tent covering was 44 cubits, and only half a curtain or two cubits hung down either before or behind (Ex. xxvi. 9, 12), the length of the Tent was 40 cubits, or 10 cubits longer than the Tabernacle. The entrance towards the east was closed by a screen of blue and purple and scarlet and fine twined linen.

Over the Tent came the covering of the Tent. This consisted of two parts: (1) an inner covering of ram-skins dyed red, (2) a covering of seal or porpoise skins over all (Ex. xxvi. 14).

The Sanctuary was probably tent-like in shape. This may be argued from (1) its name, (2) its principles of construction. Four heavy curtains hung over rows of boards 10 cubits apart could not be stretched tight, and must have bagged in the middle. They would be very unsightly, and would hold the rain, which would (ultimately) find its way inside. (3) The mention of pins and cords in Ex. xxxix. 40. (4) The dimensions of the curtains, which would be suitable for a right-angled roof with 20 cubits breadth of floor.

The Tent stood in a court 100 cubits by 50, surrounded by a fence (Ex. xxvii. 18) five cubits high, composed of pillars and hangings of fine white linen. The entrance towards the east was 20 cubits wide (Ex. xxvii. 16), and was closed by a screen of linen of four different colours on four pillars.

In the court outside the Tent and in front of its door stood the Altar of Burnt-offering, a square of five cubits, three cubits high. Its outer frame was acacia wood overlaid with

brass (Ex. xxvii. 1, 2, 8), whence its name (Ex. xxxix. 39). The hollow was probably filled with earth or unhewn stones (Ex. xx. 24, 25). The altar had round it and half-way up it a ledge (Ex. xxvii. 5), supported by a grating of network of brass. Besides various brazen utensils for use in the sacrifices it had rings and staves by means of which it was carried.

Between the altar of burnt-offering and the door of the Tent stood a laver of brass on a base of brass (Ex. xxx. 18). In it the priests washed their hands and feet when they went into the Tent of Meeting for any priestly purpose (Ex. xxx. 19-21).

The Tabernacle proper was divided into two parts by a veil of the same materials as the screen of the court, the inner roof-covering of the Tabernacle, and the screen of the Tent (Ex. xxxvi. 35, 37).

In the outer compartment (20 cubits by 10) called the Holy Place were three things: (1) In the middle, before the veil and before the mercy-seat (Ex. xxx. 6), stood the Altar of Incense, similar in construction to the Altar of Burnt-offering but smaller and overlaid with gold. On it was burned incense morning and evening (no animal sacrifices); and on its horns was put once a year, on the Day of Atonement, the blood of the sin-offering (Ex. xxx. 10). (2) On the south side of the altar of incense stood the Candlestick (Ex. xxvi. 35), of pure gold of beaten work, with six branches and seven lamps. Pure olive oil beaten was burnt in the lamps (Lev. xxiv. 2; Ex. xxvii. 20, 21). Aaron lit the lamps at evening and dressed them in the morning (Ex. xxx. 8; Lev. xxiv. 3). (3) On the north side of the altar stood the Table of Shewbread (Ex. xxv. 23-30) made of acacia wood. On it was placed the shewbread, consisting of 12 unleavened cakes made of fine flour. They were placed in two rows (or piles), and frankincense was put on each row (Lev. xxiv. 7). The shewbread was changed every Sabbath-day, and the old loaves were eaten by the priests in a holy place (Lev. xxiv. 9).

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The Holy of Holies contained only one piece of furniture, viz. the Ark of the Covenant, or the Ark of the Testimony (Ex. xxv. 22). It was an oblong box of acacia wood, 2 cubits long and 14 cubit wide and high. It was overlaid within and without with gold, and had a rim or edging of gold round its top. It had rings and staves by which to carry it, and the staves were never to be removed from the rings (Ex. XXV. 15). The ark had within it "The Testimony,' i.e. the two tables of stone (Ex. xxv. 21, xxxi. 18). From these the ark got both its names. According to Heb. ix. 4, the ark also contained a pot of manna and Aaron's rod that budded. In the O. T. it is said of these that they are put or laid up before the Testimony' (Ex. xvi. 34; Num. xvii. 10). They were not in the ark in the time of Solomon (1 Kings viii. 9). The Book of the Law was placed "by the side of the ark of the covenant," not inside it (Deut. xxxi. 26). Upon the ark and forming the lid was the Kapporeth [A.V. and R. V. 'mercyseat,' R.V. (margin) covering']. It served, with the ark beneath, as an altar on which the highest atonement known to the Jewish law was effected. On it was sprinkled the blood of the sin-offering of the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 14, 15). The Kapporeth was the place of the manifestation of God's glory (Ex. xxv. 22). It was God's throne in Israel. Cf. the phrase, "The Lord God of Israel which sitteth upon