names that the Jews must have carried with them to Babylon a considerable literature, embracing much domestic and national history. The constant appeals that are made at that time to registers of genealogies bespeak for these documents both antiquity and authority. Cf. Ezra ii. 62, viii. 3; Neh. vii. 5, 64, xii. 23. The great number of authorities referred to in the Books of Chronicles shews that many original documents were accessible to the compilers. Beside the genealogies which occupy the early chapters of 1 Chronicles, there are other authorities named in 1 Chr. xxix. 29; 2 Chr. ix. 29, xii. 15, xiii. 22, xxiv. 27, xxvi. 22, xxxii. 32, as well as frequent allusions to "the book of the kings of Judah and Israel." Before the Captivity Baruch wrote for Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi. 18) with ink in a book,' and the courtiers who could read that book could probably also write. The narrative in that place shews that the so-called book was a roll, such as we know to have been used by the Jews in later times for making their copies of the Scriptures. In the days of Hezekiah (Prov. xxv. 1) we find what we may call a college of scribes, engaged in collecting scattered portions of the national literature which had not yet been brought into order; and as we go backward to the days of David the royal recorder constantly appears as a prominent officer, while historic records are frequently mentioned as composed by prophets who were living in the different reigns. Earlier still they must have been trained scribes who made out the lists of the boundaries which are recorded in the Book of Joshua (Josh. xviii. 9); they "went and passed through the land, and described (lit. wrote) it by cities into seven parts in a book." These men would be only one generation younger than Moses, and as he became "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians" so others of the people no doubt acquired in Egypt the art of writing and transmitted their skill to their posterity. In Exod. xvii. 14 we have God's command to Moses, "Write this for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua." It is thus that the mention of writing first comes into the history, and it is noteworthy that in the Book of Genesis there is nothing to indicate that writing was known to the patriarchs in that primitive period. The earliest material for writing upon was probably the prepared skin of some animal. We know that the Israelites could prepare such materials (Exod. xxv. 5; Lev. xiii. 48) and that in later times their books were rolls of skin fastened together. They may also have been acquainted in Egypt with papyrus, but the supply of this would be scanty in Canaan. We see also that they were able to carve inIscriptions in stone (Exod. xxiv. 12; Jer. xvii. 1) and to engrave on metal (Exod. xxviii. 36), but no writing on bricks, after the manner of the Assyrians, is either recorded or has been discovered. Under such conditions books could not rapidly be multiplied, and indeed, from the names of those persons who are spoken of as writing, we can see that the art was confined to persons of position, kings, prophets, priests, ambassadors, and the like. Probably the earliest form which literature assumes among any people is the popular ballad, written to commemorate some tragic or stirring event. Of this character, among the Israelites, were the song of Lamech (Gen. iv. 23, 24), and the song of the well (Num. xxi. 17, 18), both probably of great antiquity. To these may be added the battle-songs which are found in a fragmentary form in Num. xxi. 14, 15, 2730, and Josh. x. 12, 13. Of greater length are the songs of Moses and Miriam (Exod. xv., Deut. xxxii.) and of Deborah (Judg. v.). Of a religious character, and probably belonging to a much later time, are Hannah's song (1 Sam. ii. 1-10), Hezekiah's thanksgiving (Is. xxxviii. 10-20), and the pathetic lamentations of David over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 19-27) and over Abner (2 Sam. iii. 33, 34). Such poems would have a separate existence long before the national history came to be written, and the same remark holds good for such passages as the blessings of Noah (Gen. ix. 25-27), of Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 27-29, 39, 40), of Jacob (Gen. xlix.), and of Moses (Deut. xxxiii.), as well as for the last words of David (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7); and the existence of these early lyrics (and probably there were many like them in the Book of the Wars of the Lord, and in the Book of Jashar) is cogent evidence for the verity of the history to which they belong and in which they have been imbedded. For the narrative portions of the sacred books material of various kinds must have been preserved from very early times, it may be in separate documents, as indeed an examination of their language seems to shew. Such would be the histories of the patriarchs, the narrative of the plagues of Egypt, the several recapitulations of the Law, the stories of Samson and the other judges, and more than one history of the lives of Saul and David. These with all the other material embraced in the historical books would be brought together at various periods, and it is natural that the name of Moses should be particularly attached to those portions which contain his history and some at least of his writings. The other histories would be compiled in the succeeding generations by such men as Samuel and his successors in the schools of the prophets, and prose writing would attain its most artificial form after the overthrow of the nation, as we find it in the Books of Chronicles. In the New Testament we have historic narratives in the four Gospels and the Acts; the rest is mainly made up of letters written to various Churches by the Apostles. The Apocalypse has many literary features in common with the prophetic writings of the Old Testament. Not till the nation became settled under kings would the devotional element of their literature, which finds its chief expression in the Psalter, be likely to become prominent. Not amid the struggles of Joshua's time nor during the disorders which came after would Psalms and Hymns be written; but when the king felt himself to be the anointed of the Lord and the people became conscious of the lofty destiny designed for them in God's promises to the house of David, worship and praise would become for them a natural expression, and the best means of keeping their consciousness alive. For this purpose many of the Psalms are excellently adapted, and have been constantly welcomed among other nations, as supplying words best fitted for those who would draw nigh unto God. That these lofty hymns should have been composed in a time of national decadence is beyond belief, and the tradition which calls them by the name of David has, no doubt, a foundation in fact, though doubtless many of the Psalms were written by others, while some of the later ones are little more than compilations culled from the earlier poems and perhaps prepared for some special services. (Compare the selection made in our Prayer-Book for the anniversary of the Queen's Accession.) The translators of the Septuagint rightly appreciated the title 'Psalm of David' when at the head of one or two they placed 'a Psalm of David, by Haggai and Zechariah' (Pss. cxxxviii., cxlvi.-cxlviii.). The artificial character of the Acrostic,' or Alphabetical,' Psalms, of which the most prominent example is Ps. cxix., seems to indicate for them a later date of composition. Besides their Histories and their Lyrics the Hebrews have in their literature some books which may be fitly called Philosophy, though like everything else in their writings its character is entirely religious. If the Proverbs of Solomon are "to give subtlety to the simple, to the young man knowledge and discretion," the path thereto is made plain from the outset, 'the fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge." The Book of Proverbs is of much interest because we can judge in some measure from its composite character (see p. 62) what may be looked for in the other books of this ancient literature. But it is the literary form which is here to be noticed. The sententious wisdom of the Hebrews is very frequently set forth in a couple of parallel clauses, of which the second either emphasizes and gives force to the first, as. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty; And he that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city (xvi. 32), or makes a contrast to it, as He that covereth a transgression seeketh love; But he that harpeth on a matter separateth chief friends (xvii. 9). But occasionally a subject is extended through several verses as in xxiv. 30-34 on Sloth, and Xxx. 1-4 on the Unsearchableness of God. The last two sections of the Book of Proverbs, which bear the title of 'burden' (xxx. 1, xxxi. 1; or oracle' R. V.), point to the close approach of some parts of this religious philosophy to the character of prophecy, to some portions of which (cf. Is. xiii. 1, xv. 1, xvii. 1, &c.) the same title is given. Two solemn subjects are discussed more at length in the other philosophical writings, Job and Ecclesiastes, the former of which deals with the question Why does God permit the innocent to suffer?' the latter with "The vanity of all earthly pursuits.' See on the contents of these books pp. 57 and 63. Closely connected with the 'Proverb' is the 'Parable,' examples of which are more abundant in the Gospels than in the Old Testament, where however we find the parables of Jotham (Judg. ix.), of Nathan (2 Sam. xii.) and of Joash (2 Kings xiv.). Cf. p. 165. But the most elevated literary form which appears in the Bible is Prophecy, of which we find no examples in any nation except Israel. The prophet speaks as the direct messenger of God. He is a preacher bringing exhortations, warnings, consolations, denunciations of divine anger, and sometimes seeing with the eye of faith, and declaring, the course of God's providence and grace in times to come. The opening chapter of Isaiah is a very com plete compendium of the prophetic style; rebuke and exhortation are there blended with offers of pardon and promises of restoration. The 'burdens' which occupy a large portion of the early part of the same prophecy partake more largely of the character of denunciations. They are directed against heathen nations whom God may use as His instruments but whom He will nevertheless visit for their wickedness. This is the character of the whole of the books of Obadiah and Nahum. Sometimes the prophet delivers his message by describing or performing some symbolical action. Thus Jeremiah (i. 11-16), by the figures of an early blossoming almond-tree and a seething caldron, pictures the near approach of the divine anger, and the fierceness with which punishment will be inflicted. The same prophet employs symbol again in xiii. 1-11 and xvi. 1-21, as does Ezekiel (iv., v., xii.), who also conveys his message at times by proverbs and parables. Examples of these will be found in Ezekiel xii., xv., xvi., xviii., xix., xxiii., xxiv. At times the prophetic message assumes the form of a dialogue, where the prophet, in God's name, argues with offenders and replies to their response. Illustrations will be found in Zechariah (xi.), Jeremiah (xlii.), Ezekiel (xiv.) and many other places. Sometimes the dialogue is between God and the prophet (cf. Jer. xiv., xv.; Hab. i., ii.). Another mode of presentation is by vision, of which many instances are found in the early chapters of Zechariah, in Isaiah (vi.), Ezekiel (i.-iii.) and the Apocalypse. At times the prophet joins his message with historical details, as is seen in Jonah, Haggai, Daniel, in certain portions of Isaiah and a large part of Jeremiah. But in the loftiest strains of prophecy all literary forms combine to furnish a sublime utterance. Such Micah and of Joel. Exhortation is joined with are the last chapters of Isaiah, some parts of promise, visions of a glorious future are contrasted with past humiliation, praise and exultation following entreaty and prayer; now the speaker is Jehovah, now the prophet, now the people of Israel: while the prospect of the universality of God's kingdom is opened to view as the crowning triumph of redemption. And everywhere except in simple narrative the language of praise always, of proverb very frequently, and of prophecy not seldom, takes the form which belongs to Hebrew poetry. This, which is the most striking feature of Hebrew literature, consists of various kinds of parallelism. One or two instances of this literary form have been noticed in connexion with Proverbs. There it is usually of a simple kind. In the Psalms and in portions of the prophets it becomes much more complex. This will be seen in such a passage as the opening of the 68th Psalm: Let God arise, let his enemies be scattered So drive them away: As wax melteth before the fire, So let the wicked perish at the presence of God. But let the righteous be glad; Let them exult before God: Yea, let them rejoice with gladness. Somewhat similar is Is. lv. 6, 7: Let the wicked forsake his way, And the unrighteous man his thoughts: And let him return unto the Lord, And to our God, And he will have mercy upon him; Sometimes the effect is produced by heaping together a succession of parallel clauses. Thus in the 103rd Psalm: Bless the Lord, O my soul: And all that is within me, bless his holy name. And forget not all his benefits: Who forgiveth all thine iniquities; Who healeth all thy diseases;" Who redeemeth thy life from destruction; Why art thou cast down, O my soul? And why art thou disquieted within me? Oh that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, The arrangement of the text of the Psalms in the Revised Version enables these characteristics of Hebrew poetry to be noticed and appreciated, and renders it less needful to fur Who crowneth thee with lovingkindness and tender nish further examples. The Book of Proverbs mercies; Who satisfieth thy mouth with good things; Be thou exalted, O God, above the heavens; There is much power in the way in which in the 42nd and 43rd Psalms the refrain is introduced: is also arranged so as to bring into notice the constant parallelism; so also are the Song of Songs, the Lamentations and the poetical portion of the Book of Job. In the prophetical with the prose, it is so difficult to decide prebooks, though there is much poetry mingled cisely where the one ends and the other begins that no such arrangement has been attempted except in such distinctly lyrical passages as part of Isaiah, ch. xxxviii., Jonah ii. and Habakkuk iii. For further illustration the reader may consult Bp Lowth 'On the poetry of the Hebrews.' 7. THE ARTS. TRADE AND COMMERCE. The Israelites were originally a group of nomadic tribes, and though the process by which they were transformed into a settled agricultural nation cannot, of course, be accurately known to us, it is certain that the change was a slow one. In some districts, particularly in the pasture-lands to the east of the Jordan, and in the barren uplands of Judah, the habits of nomadic life no doubt survived much longer than in the fertile valleys of northern Palestine, where the Israelites came more closely in contact with Canaanite civilisation. In any case a considerable proportion of the people continued, down to the final overthrow of the kingdom, to subsist mainly by their flocks. The life of an Eastern shepherd is usually a very hard one (see Gen. xxxi. 40), and as he is often obliged to go far in search of pasture, he is accustomed to camp out at night; hence "a shepherd's tent" (Is. xxxviii. 12) is the type of an uncertain dwelling-place, no sooner set up than it must be taken down. As a protection against wild beasts, sheepfolds were sometimes surrounded by a high wall (John_x. 1); it was usual for shepherds to be armed with slings (1 Sam. xvii. 40) or with bows and arrows (Is. vii. 24), and an encounter with a lion appears to have been a common incident in pastoral life (Is. xxxi. 4; Amos iii. 12). As the tending of flocks is the natural occupation of nomads (see Ezek. xxvii. 21, where "lambs, rams, and goats" are mentioned as the articles of export from the desert), so the possession of cattle is generally associated with agriculture, for not only do cattle require much better pasture than sheep and goats, but they are, in the East, indispensable for ploughing, gathering in the corn, and treading it out (Deut. xxv. 4). The early kings of Israel owned large flocks and herds, and the chief of the herdmen and shepherds was one of the principal court officials (1 Sam. xxi. 7). It is a common mistake to assume that the tending of cattle must have been abandoned to the lowest and least cultivated part of the community; that this was not so is shewn by the case of the prophet Amos, who was a herdman and a gatherer (R. V. dresser) of sycomore figs (Amos vii. 14), and whose book is remarkable, not only for its pure and graceful style, but for the wide knowledge which it displays with respect to contemporary history and geography. The hunting and snaring of wild animals was at all times common in Palestine. Deer, of various sorts, were the favourite object of the chase, for which reason the phrase "the roebuck and the hart" is used in Deuteronomy as typical of all animals that may be eaten, though not offered in sacrifice (Deut. xii. 15, xv. 22). The kings of Assyria and Persia were accustomed to hunt on a very large scale, and had parks specially arranged for the purpose. This habit does not appear to have existed among the earlier Hebrews, for the mention of "parks (R. V.) in Eccles. ii. 5 (where the Persian word pardes is employed-the A. V. wrongly translates "orchards") proves only that such things were known in the time of the author of Ecclesiastes. There are in the Old Testament many allusions to fishing-with a hook and line (Job xli. 1, 2), with a harpoon (id. 7), and with nets of different kinds (fab. 1. 15). Egypt was especially noted for its fish (Is. xix. 8), which, owing to the innumerable canals intersecting the country, could always he procured there without difficulty. At Jerusalem, in the time of Nehemiah, the fish trade was in the hands of the Tyrians (Neh. xiii. 16), and as there was a "fish gate" (Neh, iii. 3), the city probably contained a fish-market. To organized companies of fishermen there appears to be an allusion in Job xli. 6 (R. V.). In later times, as we know from the New Testament, the Lake of Tiberias was a great fishing centre. food as soon as they are killed, and the two operations therefore fall to the lot of the same person. See 1 Sam. ix. 23, 24. The arts of spicery and perfumery have always been regarded as important in hot climates, and were early practised by the Hebrews (1 Sam. viii. 13, where for "confectionaries" we should read "perfumers," see R. V. margin). The best spices were those of South Arabia (Sheba), the centre of the incense trade (1 Kings x. 10; Is. lx. 6), but many kinds were produced also in Palestine (Cant. iv. 14). Orientals frequently mix spices with their wine (Cant. viii. 2; Prov. ix. 2), and in particular "peppered wine" is mentioned by the ancient Arabic poets. Perfumes were employed in religious service as well as in ordinary life (Exod. xxx. 34-38). In Is. iii. 20, the phrase which the A. V. translates by "tablets" is usually understood to signify "perfume-boxes" (see R. V.), but whether this be the real meaning is not quite certain. The agriculture of the Hebrews was no doubt mainly borrowed from the Canaanites. It is true that small crops of corn and vegetables are often raised by nomadic tribes, but the cultivation of the vine and the olive, two of the most important products of Palestine, necessarily implies a settled life. That vine-culture existed among the Canaanites to a very large extent is quite certain. Thus in the Canaanite city of Shechem the vintage was celebrated as a religious festival (Judges ix. 27). The same custom existed in Israel (Exod. xxiii. 16), and The medicine and surgery of the ancient Isit has been suggested that the practice of dwell-raelites were no doubt of a very primitive ing in booths among the vineyards at this kind, and until the introduction of Greek season of the year, as is still done in some civilisation never rose to the rank of sciences. Eastern countries, gave rise to the observances In Egypt the physicians were also embalmers Iwith which the Feast of Tabernacles is con- (Gen. 1. 2), but this custom does not appear to nected (Lev. xxiii. 40). A vineyard often con- have been adopted at any time by the Hetained a watch-tower and a winepress (Is. v. brews, for they were strangers to the abstruse 2). The latter usually consisted of two hollows theological speculations with which the Egypcut in the rock one below the other, in order tian practice of embalming was intimately conto hold the grapes and the juice respectively, nected. Among the early Hebrews, as among The treading of the winepress, accompanied other primitive peoples, diseases were prowith singing and a peculiar kind of shout bably most often treated by means of magic; known as hedad, is the ordinary symbol for on this subject, however, the Bible throws very joy and triumph. little light (see 2 Kings v. 11, R. V.). Of medical means properly so called those mentioned in the Old Testament are such as would be used for external injuries, viz., plasters, bandages and unguents (Is. i. 6; Jer. xxx. 12, 13). It may be remembered that similarly, in the Iliad, the sons of Asklepios are healers of wounds rather than physicians. Jeremiah speaks of a resinous gum called sort (whence the Greek styrax is possibly derived) as noted for its healing properties; it was produced in the district of Gilead (Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11). We also read of figs being used as a poultice (Is. xxxviii. 21). Besides the vine and the olive, cereals of various kinds were extensively cultivated. Thus the ploughshare and the pruning-hook together represent agriculture (Is. ii. 4; Joel iii. 10). Among the other implements of husbandry are mentioned the sickle, the threshinginstrument, the winnowing-shovel, and the winnowing-fork, for such appears to be the meaning of the word mizreh, Is. xxx. 24. Corn was either simply parched (Ruth ii. 14), or pounded in a mortar (Prov. xxvii. 22), or ground in a hand-mill, made of two slabs of stone which were placed one upon another. The work of grinding was usually performed by slaves, most often by female slaves (Matt. xxiv. 41), and hence came to be regarded as degrading (Judges xvi. 21; Lam. v. 13); thus the prophet, addressing Babylon, bids her descend from the throne and grind meal (Is. xlvii. 2). The New Testament speaks also of mills turned by asses (Matt. xviii. 6, R. V. margin), The business of baking was carried on both by men and women (1 Sam. viii. 13). At Jerusalem there was a bakers' street (Jer. xxxvii. 21), in accordance with a custom which prevailed also in medieval Europe-that of assigning a particular street to each trade. Bread was usually made in flat circular cakes, for the word kikkar, which is translated "loaf," means properly "a circle." In ordinary cases it was prepared with leaven, that is, fermented dough, and was baked either in an oven (Hos. vii. 4), in a pan (2 Sam. xiii. 9, where we should read, with R. V., "the pan," instead of "a pan") or in the hot ashes. A cook is called by the Hebrews a "slaughterer" (tabbakh, a word which is also used for an "executioner"), because in the East, owing to the heat, animals are usually dressed for Though there are many allusions to the shaving of the head and beard, particularly as a sign of mourning (Deut. xiv. 1; Is. xv. 2; Jer. xvi. 6), barbers are mentioned only in Ezek. v. 1. Among the ancient Egyptians, as in the modern East, this trade was a very important one. Fullers appear in 2 Kings xviii. 17; Is. vii. 3, where we hear of a field near Jerusalem which was named after them. The soap they employed was made of salts, mixed with oil; there were two kinds, nether (i.e. carbonate of soda, in Greek nitron, A. V. nitre), and bōr or borith, which has often been explained as "potash," but which was more probably "borax." See Jer. ii. 22; Mal. iii. 2; Mark ix. 3. Of all manual labour, the most despised, as requiring least skill, was that of hewing wood (i.e. firewood) and drawing water: hence the proverbial expression in Josh. ix. 21. Very different is the cutting of wood for architectural or ornamental purposes (1 Kings v. 6; Is. xl. 20). A workman of this kind is called in Hebrew khārāsh (carver)-a term applied both to a carpenter and to a worker in metal or stone (Is. xliv. 12, 13; Exod. xxviii. 11). Among the implements of a carpenter are mentioned the axe, the saw (Is. x. 15), the rule (or cord), the pencil (A. V., line), the graving tool (usually translated "plane") and the compass (Is. xliv. 13). One of the occupations of a carpenter was the making of idols. A wooden idol often had a metal plating (Is. xxx. 22; Jer. x. 3, 4), and in early times was called an "ephod"; such was no doubt the ephod of Gideon in Judges viii. 27, a passage which has been wrongly interpreted as referring to some kind of garment, The art of working in brass (i.e. copper) and iron was regarded by the Hebrews as of primeval antiquity (Gen. iv. 22), and was largely practised by the Canaanites, who were especially famed for their iron chariots (Judges iv. 3). This fact is worthy of note, because iron is of all metals the most difficult to work, and appears to have been introduced last-the earliest Greeks scarcely used it at all, their weapons being made of bronze. Among the Hebrews, as among most other nations of antiquity, iron was worked red-hot, but seldom molten (see, however, Ezek. xxii. 20); the melting of gold, silver, and brass, on the other hand, is frequently mentioned. A founder, or melter of metal, already appears in one of the most ancient parts of the book of Judges (xvii. 4). The furnace in which the pure metal is separated from the dross is to the prophets the familiar type of the divine judgement upon Israel (Is. i. 25, xlviii. 10; Mal. iii. 2, 3). The blowing of the furnace with bellows is mentioned in Is. liv. 16; Jer. vi. 29. We read also of the hammer, the anvil, the soldering, and the nails (Is. xli. 7; Jer. x. 4). One of the most ancient and most indispensable of manufactures is that of pottery. The word yoçer, usually translated "potter,' means simply a "shaper" or "fashioner," but it early acquired the special sense of a worker in clay. Among the Israelites pottery was a purely practical handicraft; it appears never to have become one of the fine arts, as among the Egyptians or the Babylonians, not to mention the Greeks. The abundance of earthenware in Palestine is shewn by the expression "earthen pitchers," to denote that which is common and valueless (Lam. iv. 2). In the time of Jeremiah one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the gate of the Kharsith, which apparently means "earthenware" (see Jer. xix. 2, R. V. margin-the A. V. renders "the east gate"); in any case, the context seems to imply that earthenware was sold in the immediate neighbourhood. On the other hand, in Zech. xi. 13 we should probably read "into the treasury" instead of "unto the potter.". This is in accordance with the ancient Syriac Version (see R. V. margin), and it has been accepted as the genuine reading by the best of recent commentators. The process of making pottery was somewhat as follows. The clay was first trodden, in order to make it ductile (Is. xli. 25). It was then shaped upon an instrument called obnayim (i.e. two stones), the exact nature of which is not certain. The Jewish scholar Abu1-walid (who lived at Cordova in the earlier part of the 11th century of our era) describes it as a machine consisting of two wooden slabs shaped like the stone slabs of the hand-mill (whence the name "two stones"), the upper one being smaller than the lower. He adds that this machine was used by the potters of the East, but not by those of Spain. The son of Sirach represents the potter as turning his wheel with his feet (Ecclesiasticus xxxviii. 29), in which case the wheel must correspond to the lower of the two slabs above-mentioned. It would seem, however, from the Egyptian monuments, that originally the machine consisted of nothing but a small round table revolving on a pivot; the potter turned it with one hand whilst moulding the clay with the other. When the vessel had been shaped it was sometimes glazed with various mineral substances such as silica or lead. To this operation there is an allusion in the phrase "a potsherd (R. V. earthen vessel) covered with silver dross" (Prov. xxvi. 23). Last of all came the process of baking in a furnace (Ecclesiasticus xxxviii. 30). Sun-dried pottery may also have been used for some purposes, but it is necessarily very fragile. The dressing of skins, particularly for clothing, is practised by almost all primitive races, and was no doubt known to the Hebrews whilst they were still nomads. In later times to wear garments of skin was specially charac teristic of prophets (2 Kings i. 8; Zech. xiii. 4), as representing a simpler and more primitive mode of life. Tanning is mentioned in Acts x. 6. Spinning and weaving existed in Palestine from the earliest times. The former process, as it requires none but the simplest implements, was carried on in every household; the latter was the employment of a particular class. The distaff, about which the carded wool is wound, and the spindle upon which it is rolled off and twisted into a thread, appear in the well-known description of the virtuous wife (Prov. xxxi. 19). The weavers' loom, as generally used in the ancient world, was an upright frame, provided with a horizontal beam (1 Sam. xvii. 7) from which a row of threads, called the warp (Lev. xiii. 48), or web (Judges xvi. 13), was hung. Each thread ran through a loop, by means of which it was moved backwards and forwards, while the shuttle, a wooden implement shaped like a boat, passed to and fro among the threads of the warp, winding off from itself, as it went, the thread called the woof (Lev. xiii. 48), which was at right angles with the warp. In Job vii, 6 the shuttle is the emblem of the swift flight of man's life. When the work was finished the weaver cut off the threads from above, where the ends (called "the thrum") were fastened to the beam. From this operation is borrowed the striking metaphor, "I have rolled up like a weaver my life; he will cut me off from the loom" (Is. xxxviii. 12, R. V.). The ordinary garments worn in Palestine, especially in early times, were of wool; but linen was also well known. Thus Rahab lays out stalks of flax upon her roof, in order to dry them in the sun (Josh. ii. 6), and Hosea classes wool and flax together as two of the most indispensable products of the country (Hos. ii. 5, 9). Among its other uses, flax served to make lamp-wicks, hence the phrase "the smoking flax," in speaking of a lamp nearly extinguished (Is. xlii. 3). The wearing of linen garments was in a special manner characteristic of priests; according to Herodotus, the Egyp tian priests might wear nothing but linen, and a similar custom prevailed in Israel. Samuel ministers in the temple at Shiloh girded with a linen ephod (i.e. robe); so also linen ephods were worn by the priests of Nob, whom Saul |