in the type and the words "out, see copy," or "out, s. c.," are written in the margin. In the manuscript the omitted words should be enclosed in brackets.

16. Straightening Crooked Lines. In the type: The depressed words or letters enclosed in parallel lines. In the margin: The parallel lines extended into the margin. Sometimes other shorter parallel lines are placed in the margin opposite those in the type.

17. Change of Font. In the type: A stroke through the letter or word to be changed. In the margin: The abbreviation "w. f." ("wrong font ").

The letter P in line 20 is blacker than the other capitals, as will be seen by comparing it with the same letter in line 4.

18. Two Paragraphs United. - In the type: A curved line drawn from the end of the first paragraph to the beginning of the second. In the margin: "No T." In the margin the words "run in" are sometimes used.

19. Insertion of a Word. In the type: A caret at the point where the omission occurs.

In the margin: The

omitted word, followed by a slanting stroke.

In the

In

20. Substitution of a Perfect for a Defective Type. type: A cross under (or through) the defective letter. the margin: A cross.

In the type:

21. Uniting the Separated Parts of a Word. Horizontal curves enclosing the separated parts. In the margin: Horizontal curves.

General Suggestions.

1. In cases of doubt, strike out the matter to be corrected and rewrite it in the margin exactly as it should appear in the type,

2. The logotypes fi, ffi, fl, ffl, and ff are used instead of the separate letters fi, ffi, fl, ffl, and ff. When æ is desired, in place of ae, it is indicated by a horizontal line or a curve above the two letters.

3. The following errors are somewhat difficult of detection: (a) change of font, when the types of the two fonts are much alike; (b) inversion of s, x, and z; (c) the occurrence of inverted n, u, b, and p, for u, n, q, and d, respectively.

(a) Differences in fonts can be learned only by experience. The principal differences are in the shape of the letters, the thickness or blackness of the lines, and the size of the face.

(b) Inverted s, x, and z may be detected by the fact that the lower part of these letters is slightly larger than the upper part.

(c) The main differences between n and inverted u, b and inverted q, d and inverted p, lie in the small projections which start at right angles from the sides or stems of these letters. For example, in n the projections at the bottom of the letter are seen on both sides of the prongs or "legs." In u these projections are seen on but one side. The differences in the other pairs of letters will be readily detected upon examination.

4. Other inversions for which it is well to be watchful are those of the letter o, the cipher, the period, the comma, and the colon.

5. The spacing of the punctuation requires some care. Notice that the comma follows immediately the preceding word, but is separated by a slight space from the word that follows; that the semicolon and colon stand a little way off from the preceding word; that the period is followed by a considerably greater space than the other points.

6. Type is set either "solid," that is, without spacing between the lines; or "leaded," that is, with the lines sepa

rated by thin strips of type-metal, known as "leads." When but one "lead" is used between each pair of lines, the type is said to be "single-leaded"; when two "leads" are used, the type is said to be "double-leaded." The type in this book is single-leaded; that in the accompanying plate is double-leaded. Errors in leading are of two kinds, (a) omitting leads, and (b) inserting them where they are not needed. In correcting the first error a horizontal caret is placed with its point between the lines of type which are to be separated, and in the margin at the opening of the caret is written the word "lead." When a lead has been unnecessarily used, the same sign is inserted in the type and "no lead" is written in the margin.

7. Words may be carried up or down, to the right or left, by means of brackets placed about the words and repeated in the margin. The significance of the brackets is as folmeans "carry to the right"; [ means "carry to the means move up "; means move down." 8. Corrections are made in the margin nearest which they If the corrections are numerous, it is well to draw lines from the marks in the type to those in the margin.

lows: left";

occur.

66

66

APPENDIX E.

CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC.

General Rules for Capitals.

The following words should begin with capitals:1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, and paragraph.

2. The first word after a period; and, usually, after the interrogation point and the exclamation point.

3. Divine names; as, God, Jehovah, the Supreme Being. 4. Proper names of persons, places, rivers, oceans, ships; as, Franklin, Chicago, Mississippi, Atlantic, the Monitor.

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, English, French, Roman, American.

6. The first word of an exact quotation in a direct form: as, he said, "There will be war.”

7. The pronoun I and the interjection O!

8. Terms of great historical importance; as, the Reformation, the Civil War, the Whigs, the Revolution.

General Rules for Punctuation.

The comma, semicolon, and colon mark the three degrees of separation in the parts of a sentence; the comma the smallest degree, the semicolon a greater degree, and the colon the greatest degree. To illustrate:

Rhetoric is based upon Logic, Grammar, and Esthetics. Rhetoric is based upon Logic, which deals with the laws of thought; upon Grammar, which presents the facts and

rules of correct language; and upon Esthetics, which investigates the principles of beauty.

Rhetoric is based upon the following sciences: Logic, which deals with the laws of thought; Grammar, which presents the facts and rules of correct language; and Esthetics, which investigates the principles of beauty.

A comma is used in the following instances:

1. To separate grammatically independent elements from the context; as, "Rejoice, young man!"

2. To separate intermediate, transposed, and parenthetical elements from the context; as, "Even good men, they say, sometimes act like brutes."

3. To separate expressions in apposition from the context; as, "Washington, the first President, served two terms."

4. To separate contrasted words or phrases, and words or phrases in pairs; as, "We live in deeds, not years." "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote."

5. To mark the omission of words; as, "In war he was warlike; in peace, peaceable."

6. Before short and informal quotations; as, " He shouted, 'Come in!""

It is quite possible to use the comma too frequently; as, "It is well known, that, when water is cooled, below a certain point, contraction ceases, and expansion begins." Better: "It is well known that when water is cooled below a certain point, contraction ceases and expansion begins."

A semicolon is used in the following instances:

1. To separate members of a compound sentence, when they are complex or loosely connected, or when they contain

commas.

2. To separate short sentences closely connected in meaning.