NOTE. — The importance of climax as a law of style - see preceding, pages 105 to 107 is even exceeded by its importance as a law of invention. It is a principal element in imparting to discourse the quality of movement. Climax is largely involved in sequence. For if any succeeding thought is what it is by the influence and preparation of the preceding, it takes into itself the double significance of the preceding and itself, and its progress is thus an ascent.

The Outline Structure, or Skeleton. - In order to preserve due distinction, sequence, and climax in the thoughts, it is ordinarily necessary, and always of great advantage, to set them down, stated in their most condensed form, in a tabular view, with their progress and subordination indicated by numerals or letters. This for the writer's own assistance in planning, not necessarily for the reader.

"A skeleton," says Professor Phelps,1 "is not a thing of beauty; but it is the thing which, more than any other, makes the body erect and strong and swift. John Quincy Adams says that 'divisions belong to the art of thinking.' They are fundamental, then, to the art of uttering thought. To the same purpose is the old Roman proverb, Qui bene distinguit, bene docet." This point is here emphasized because young writers need to overcome the dislike, which almost universally they have, of a skeleton plan in literary work. Such an outline is an indispensable auxiliary to finished and accurate thought-building. The making of it stimulates and sharpens meditation, and cultivates the logical sense. It will probably be time saved in any literary task if the young writer, whose aptitudes in this respect are in course of education, spends half the time at his disposal in constructing and reconstructing his outline plan.

It would not be of practical service here to recommend any particular manner of tabulating thoughts; every one can work best in his own harness. Whatever the form adopted, each writer should, in planning, work for these three qualities:

1. Simplicity—the main divisions few and obvious, instead of many and abstruse;

1 Phelps, "Theory of Preaching," p. 425.

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2. Concise and clear-cut expression of each thought its limits and its central significance carefully determined;

3. Proportion—the relative rank of thoughts closely estimated, and the part each is to play in the discourse indicated by divisions and subdivisions. The minuteness of such calculation should, of course, be carried in the writer's study much farther than would ever be displayed for the reader.

How far the Skeleton should be Visible in the Completed Work. This is a point to be determined partly by the nature of the thought, and partly by the occasion of its presentation.

1. The more a subject taxes the mind, and the less obvious its laws of sequence, the more carefully must its steps be marked for the help of the reader. Abstruse subjects, therefore, and in general subjects that depend for their movement on logical sequences, have the most need of a visible structure, indicated by numerals or other such devices.

2. Spoken discourse has ordinarily to be richer in such external indications of plan than written discourse. The reason is obvious: because the thought has to be made clear and marked enough to be received and retained by a single hearing.

It is to be acknowledged, however, that such display of the skeleton plan, indispensable though it often is, is at the best a makeshift, due to the necessities of the case. If the writer so plans his subject that his reader may receive it and be clearly aware of its progress without thinking of its framework, he has achieved a greater success. But to this end the reader must be spared all dislocations and abruptness; the turnings and transitions of the thought must be easily perceivable; and much care must be given to preparatory and introductory thoughts. Let therefore these internal indications of plan be first attended to, and then let the external marks be used merely so far as they are indispensable.

It is of importance that headings expressing the same rank in the thought—whether main divisions or subdivisions should have a similar form of expression; and equally, that the form of expression chosen for subdivisions differ from the form chosen for

main divisions. Like construction between headings is as important as like construction between clauses of a sentence.

EXAMPLES. A heading may be stated either in the propositional form, — declaratory, interrogative, imperative, or in the titular form, by a word or

phrase. The propositional form is found predominantly in sermons.

The following plan of a sermon by Dr. Herrick Johnson, on Proverbs xxiii. - is a series of affirmations:23-"Buy the truth, and sell it not ".

I. Truth costs; it must be bought.

II. Truth is worth all it costs.

III. Though truth is worth so much, it is sometimes sold.

The following, from Rev. Newman Hall's sermon on "The Penitent Thief," Luke xxiii. 42, 43, illustrates the difference of construction between divisions and subdivisions. The former employs the titular form, the latter, the propositional. The sermon thus abruptly begins:

"These words bring before us a remarkable illustration both of a sinner's repentance and of the Saviour's grace. Let us consider, —

1. He manifested reverence toward God.

2. He manifested contrition for sin, and confessed it.

3. He appreciated the goodness of Christ.

4. He bore public witness to Christ.

5. He manifested strong faith.

6. He prayed.

7. He exhibited zealous concern for others.

II. The Saviour's grace.

How shown in his promise:

1. The promise of Jesus referred to place—' in paradise.'

2. The promise of Jesus related to companionship —‘with me.'

3. The promise of Jesus related to time-to-day.'"

In cases where the theme is not expressed, the headings are either left unmarked or are indicated by a mere numeral.

II. THE THREE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF THE PLAN.

These, which in some form and proportion must appear in every literary work, are the introduction, the development, and the conclusion. Each of these requires some detailed discussion.

The Introduction.

I.

The introduction comprises whatever is

necessary to make proper approach to the theme.

NOTE. -The natural place to state the theme, therefore, when it is expressed, is at the end of the introduction. This is exemplified in the quotation from Dr. Bushnell on page 253, where the introduction leads up to and culminates in a proposition. Sometimes to the statement of the theme there is added a brief indication of the plan, but only of its leading heads.

Rationale of the Introduction.-The fundamental object of the introduction is to call in the subject from the various surroundings and associations extraneous to the present treatment and concentrate it on a single point, which point is the main idea of the production. Or, to put it in other words, the introduction is to furnish such preliminary information as is needed to put the reader in possession of the subject, the point of view, and the manner of the treatment. This object may require different procedures, according to the type of discourse.

1. When the type of discourse is merely intellectual or didactic, that is, when the writer's object is to inform, instruct, or convince, it is generally sufficient for the introduction to define the setting of the theme in time, if the work is historical; in space, if descriptive; in some system of ideas, if expository. It enters the general region of fact or thought to which the work belongs, and determines as plainly and directly as possible a particular point or section, to which present attention is to be directed.

EXAMPLES. - 1. This primary object of the introduction is well illustrated in the introduction to Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the opening paragraph of which is as follows:

"In the second century of the Christian Era, the empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence; the Roman

senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. During a happy period of more than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines. It is the design of this and of the two succeeding chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire; and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the most important circumstances of its decline and fall; a revolution which will ever be remembered, and is still felt by the nations of the earth."

A work so comprehensive as a great history requires a correspondingly great introduction; three chapters are needed in this to give the proper setting of the theme, preparatory to tracing out the distinctive path of the work.

2. Sometimes the setting most needed for the theme relates to such questions as manner of present treatment or state of the subject. Thus in an essay by F. W. H. Myers on Greek Oracles," the introduction of which comprises eleven paragraphs, the first nine make a somewhat elaborate approach, largely of this character, to the following theme:

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"I have in this Essay endeavored to trace, — by suggestion rather than in detail, but with constant reference to the results of recent science, — the development and career in Greece of one remarkable class of religious phenomena which admits to some extent of separate treatment."

The remaining two paragraphs then sketch the plan of treatment proposed in the essay with a division into two historical periods.

2. When, however, the discourse contains an emotional element, as for instance in oratory or works of sentiment, the introduction has sometimes, though not always, to seek more objects than this. In addition to making a setting for the theme, it may have also to arouse interest, overcome prejudice, and the like. Cicero's definition covers such cases. He says the introduction (and he refers to the oratorical introduction) has for object,

"Reddere auditores benevolos, attentos, dociles,"

to make the hearers

Benevolos, well-disposed; that is, by securing good-will toward the speaker. Ancient orators used to speak much of themselves, and a personal introduction of this kind was considered very important; but in modern times it is in less favor, being accounted necessary only in exceptional cases.